grammar


 * CHAPTER 4: GRAMMAR AND USAGE**

4.2 Parts of Speech
> == 4.2.1 Nouns == > == 4.2.1.1 Properties of Nouns == > == 4.2.1.1.1 Case == > == 4.2.1.1.2 Numbers == > == 4.2.1.1.3 Gender == > == 4.2.1.1.4 Person == > == 4.2.1.2 Agent and Recipient Nouns == > == 4.2.1.3 Appositives == > == 4.2.1.4 Functional Variations == > == 4.2.1.4.1 Nouns as Adjectives == > == 4.2.1.4.2 Nouns as Verbs == > == 4.2.1.4.3 Other Functional Shifts == > == 4.2.2 Verbs == > == 4.2.2.1 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs == > == 4.2.2.2 To Be Verbs == > == 4.2.2.3 Linking Verbs == > == 4.2.2.4 Auxiliary Verbs == > == 4.2.2.5 Verb Tense and Sequence == > == 4.2.2.6 Common Verb Errors == > == 4.2.2.6.1 Subject-Verb Agreement == > == 4.2.2.6.2 Faulty Predication == > == 4.2.3 Adjectives == > == 4.2.3.1 The Structure of Adjectives == > == 4.2.3.2 Participial Adjectives == > == 4.2.3.3 Articles == > == 4.2.3.4 Placement of Adjectives == > == 4.2.3.5 Phrasal Adjectives == > == 4.2.4 Adverbs == > == 4.2.4.1 The Structure of Adverbs == > == 4.2.4.2 Placement of Adverbs == > == 4.2.5 Pronouns == > == 4.2.5.1 Classes of Pronouns == > == 4.2.5.2 Forms of Personal Pronouns == > == 4.2.5.3 Compound Pronouns == > == 4.2.5.4 Pronoun Antecedents == > == 4.2.5.5 Rules of Pronoun Number == > == 4.2.6 Prepositions == > == 4.2.6.1 Types of Prepositions == > == 4.2.6.2 Prepositional Phrases == > == 4.2.6.3 Position of Prepositions == > == 4.2.6.4 Avoiding Overuse of Prepositions == > == 4.2.7 Conjunctions == > == 4.2.7.1 Coordinating Conjunctions == > == 4.2.7.2 Subordinating Conjunctions == > == 4.2.8 Verbals == > == 4.2.8.1 Present Participles == > == 4.2.8.2 Past Participles ==

4.3 Conventions of Usage
> == 4.3.1 Standard Written English vs. Dialect == > == 4.3.2 Idioms == > == 4.3.3 Bias-Free Language ==

=4.1 GRAMMAR AND USAGE INTRODUCTION=

To analyze sentence structure, one must understand how a subject relates to its predicate; to analyze specific roles for each part of speech, one must understand how each part relates to other words within the sentence. To understand this, one must know grammar which, as defined by //The Chicago Manual of Style// (5.1), "consists of the rules governing how words are put together into sentences."

The rules of grammar are extensive, but they do not cover every possibility of the language. Sometimes, language as it is actually used breaks accepted grammar rules. Likewise, language can be technically correct, while conveying a meaning either different than intended or generally unacceptable to speakers of the language. In these situations, the editor uses accepted conventions of usage to evaluate whether or not the words need to be changed (Rude 152, //Chicago Manual of Style// 5.1).

=4.2 PARTS OF SPEECH=

=4.2.1 Nouns=

A noun (or noun phrase) names a concrete or abstract thing. If the word or phrase generically names a person, place, or thing, it is a common noun {abbreviation, copyright}. If a word or phrase formally names a person, place, or thing, it is a proper noun {Carolyn Rude, Newark, Library of Congress}. A count noun is one that can be enumerated as a singular or plural noun {book, books}. A singular count noun is followed by a singular verb; a plural count noun is followed by a plural verb {the editor is working, the editors are working} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.4-5.8).

=4.2.1.1 Properties of Nouns=

There are four properties of nouns: case, number, gender, and person (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.9).

=4.2.1.1.1 Case=

Case indicates the relationship of nouns (and pronouns) to other words in the sentence. There are three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. Nouns change form only in the possessive case (most personal pronouns have different forms in nominative, objective, and possessive case). In languages other than English, there may be parts of speech in addition to nouns and pronouns that have case.

If a noun or pronoun is the subject of a clause, it is in the nominative case {the writer finished the chapter} (//writer// is in the nominative case). If a noun or pronoun follows a //to be// verb and renames the subject, it is also in nominative case and is called a predicate nominative {the editor is Norwegian} (//Norwegian// is a predicate nominative).

If a noun or pronoun is being acted upon by an active-voice verb, it is in objective case {the editor scheduled a meeting} (meeting is in objective case). A noun or pronoun is also in objective case if it is the object of a preposition that modifies another element in the sentence {most of his suggestions have fallen by the wayside} (wayside is in objective voice). Editors should be extra careful when the object does not directly follow the verb. The verb must agree in number with the subject, not the object that comes between the subject and verb {a team of slow writers is jeopardizing our schedule} (the singular collective noun subject //team//, not the plural noun //writers//, determines whether the verb should be singular or plural).

If a noun denotes ownership, possession, or occupancy, it is in the possessive case {professor's comments, Mary’s response} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.10).

=4.2.1.1.2 Numbers=

If a noun or pronoun refers to only one person, place, or thing, it is singular. If the noun or pronoun refers to more than one person, place, or thing, the noun or pronoun is plural. Because there are many irregularities in forming plural nouns, editors should look up the correct spelling in a dictionary (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.12).

=4.2.1.1.3 Gender=

Nouns may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. Many nouns in English refer specifically to gender {boy, girl, queen, king, girlfriend}. Some nouns have a feminine suffix, such as –ess or –ix {waitress, executrix}. Many feminine suffixes are no longer used because they are archaic or are an inferior word choice when a non-gendered noun can be used in its place. Neuter objects are sometimes personified and given gender {the //Queen Mary// lurched when the tsunami hit her side} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.11).

=4.2.1.1.4 Person=

Person shows whether an object is speaking (first person) {we the students will complete the editing guide} (students is first person), spoken to (second person) {children, stop misbehaving} (chidren is second person), or spoken about (third person) {the students wrote the editing guide} (students and editing guide are third peson) (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.13).

=4.2.1.2 Agent and Recipient Nouns=

An agent noun signifies someone who performs an action. These nouns usually have the suffix –er or –or {writer, editor}. Editors should check a dictionary if they are not sure about which suffix they should use. A recipient noun signifies someone or something that is the receiver of an action. It usually takes the suffix –ee {evacuee, awardee}. Newer –ee words may not actually indicate passiveness on the part of the recipient {attendee, attender}, and should be avoided when the root word (attender) suffices (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.28).

=4.2.1.3 Appositives=

An appositive is a word or word phrase that renames, reiterates or expands an antecedent. It stands in juxtaposition or close proximity (i.e., in apposition to) the antecedent. {Professor Elliot, a professor at NJIT, spoke at the conference} (the noun phrase “a professor at NJIT” is an appositive).

Nouns or noun phrases that immediately follow and rename a noun or noun phrase are the most common structure for appositives (Tufte 189). However, adverbial, adjectival, and prepositional phrases; verbs; adjectives; and clauses can also be used as appositives (Tufte 197-203).

=4.2.1.4 Functional Variations=

A noun can sometimes function as an adjective or a verb (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.30).

=4.2.1.4.1 Nouns as Adjectives=

If a noun modifies another noun, it is functioning as an adjective {his afternoon nap} (afternoon is an adjective). Editors must be aware of word choices that can cause ambiguity. For example, is a “fair judgment” a judgment that is just or is it a judgment that takes place at the fair?

Sometimes, the adjective and the adjectival noun can be used interchangeably—for example, colonic cancer and colon cancer are interchangeable. But at other times the use of one or the other changes the meaning—for example, a focus group is not necessarily a focused group (even though one would hope that it is) (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.30).

=4.2.1.4.2 Nouns as Verbs=

It is common for nouns to transform into verbs {Google to google}. Careful editors are conservative in their use of recently coined verbs that derive from nouns (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.31).

=4.2.1.4.3 Other Functional Shifts=

Many other parts of speech can function as nouns, including pronouns {he ran} (//he// functions as a noun), adjectives {the hungry often rely on soup kitchens} (//hungry// functions as a noun), adverbs {we cannot avoid the here and now} (//here and now// functions as a noun), gerunds {writing can be difficult} (//writing// functions as a noun), infinitives {to be an author was all she wanted} (//to be// functions as a noun) and clauses {what the students asked for was more time to complete the assignment} (//what the students asked for// functions as a noun).

=4.2.2 Verbs=

The verb or verb phrase tells what the subject does or what is done to the subject (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.4, Rude 153-154).

=4.2.2.1 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs=

A transitive verb requires an object to complete the thought {Jack made the corrections}. An intransitive verb does not require an object to complete a thought {the student passed}. An intransitive verb may be followed by a prepositional phrase {the students ran down the hall}. Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive {the survivors wept tears of joy} (//wept// is transitive) {the child //wept//} (wept is intransitive) (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.98).

=4.2.2.2 To Be Verbs=

To be verbs include be, am, are, is, was, were, being and been. The //to be// verb is sometimes used to mean “exist” {I think, therefore I am}. It is also used as an auxiliary verb (i.e., an irregular verb used to form tense, voice, and mood) {he was late for class}. It can be joined with a present participle to denote continuous or current action {I am leaving now} or with a past participle to form passive voice {the manuscript was destroyed}. The passive construction, however, may be better expressed in active voice {the fire destroyed the manuscript}. //To be// verbs are also frequently used to affirm something about the subject {the parallel structure is pleasing}. A form of //to be// can be used as an adjective {a soon-to-be published author} or a noun {a has-been} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.132 and 5.141).

=4.2.2.3 Linking Verbs=

A linking verb connects the subject to a word in the sentence that is equivalent in meaning. //To be// verbs {enough is enough} and some intransitive verbs {the dog seems hungry} are used as linking verbs. The linking verb itself does not take an object. The word linked to the subject is a predicate adjective {the meal was delicious}, predicate noun {she remains the best candidate}, or predicate pronoun {the student actors wanted to be everyone} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.101, Tufte 11-16).

=4.2.2.4 Auxiliary Verbs=

Auxiliary verbs are irregular verbs that are used with other verbs to form voice, mood, or tense. Be, can, do, have, may, must, ought, shall, and will are commonly used auxiliary verbs.

=4.2.2.5 Verb Tense and Sequence=

Verbs denote action that takes place in the present, past, or future.

The present tense is formed by using the verb stem, with //s// added for the third person singular {I think} {he thinks}. To express action that has taken place in the recent past or continues to the present, use present perfect tense, which is formed by using the auxiliary verbs //have// or //has// with the past tense form (see below) {I have walked} {he has walked} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.116 and 5.119).

The past tense of a regular verb is formed by adding –ed to its stem {climbed}. Check the dictionary for correct forms of irregular verbs. To express an action, state, or condition that happened in the past before another specified time or action, use past perfect tense. The past perfect tense is formed by using had with the principal verb’s past participle (the same form as the verb in past tense) {had climbed} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.117 and 5.120).

The future tense if formed by using either shall or will (both are auxiliary verbs) {shall proceed} {will sit}. //Will// is the preferred choice in most American English contexts. To express an action, state, or condition that will happen in the future before another future act, state, or condition has been completed, use //will have// with the verbs past participle {will have worked} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.118, 5.121).

=4.2.2.6 Common Verb Errors=

Two common errors made with verbs are errors in subject-verb agreement and faulty predication.

=4.2.2.6.1 Subject-Verb Agreement=

Subjects and verbs must agree with one another in number: a singular subject takes a singular verb; a plural subject takes a plural verb. There are three common sentence structures where the number of the subject may not be obvious. First, collective nouns may be either singular or plural. To emphasize the group, use a singular verb {the faculty is unanimous in their opinion}. To emphasize the individual members, use a plural verb {the faculty are voting on the proposal now}. Second, the subject of the sentence always determines the number of the verb, even if there are singular modifiers between the subject and the verb {a plume of smoke that entered the airspaces over many European countries is interfering with the funeral services for the Polish President}. Third, when //there// functions as a pronoun and begins a sentence, the verb agrees in number with the noun that follows the verb {there are plenty of reasons to study, there is only one reason for me to study} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.8 and Rude 158-9).

=4.2.2.6.2 Faulty Predication=

Careful editors will make sure that the subject can actually perform the action described in the predicate. Sometimes, a human action is erroneously attributed to a nonhuman actor {the article spoke to many common stereotypes}. The sentence could be revised to identify the true actor {the author addressed many common stereotypes in the article}. However, an inanimate object can sometimes be an agent of action if the human involvement is inferred {the article revealed many common stereotypes} (Rude 159).

=4.2.3 Adjectives=

An adjective is a word that adds to the meaning of a noun or pronoun.

=4.2.3.1 The Structure of Adjectives=

Common suffixes include -able {workable}, -al {categorical}, -ary {primary}, -en {beholden}, -ful {powerful}, -ible {irresistible}, -ic {autistic}, -ish {selfish}, -ive {tentative}, -less {witless}, -like {godlike}, -ous {wondrous}, -some {irksome}, and -y {funny} (Chicago Manual of Style 5.66).

Adjectives have three forms of comparison: positive {sweet}, comparative {sweeter} {more worthwhile}, and superlative {sweetest} {most worthwhile}.

=4.2.3.2 Participial Adjectives=

Present and past participles can be used as adjectives {sleeping cat} {frightened child} and are called participial adjectives.

Participial adjectives can be used to modify an entire clause {arriving late, the student clattered into the classroom} {injured, the cat lashed out at its rescuers). The examples here are correct because the nouns (student and cat) closely follow the participial adjective. However, editors must beware of dangling modifiers in this construction. Sometimes, it is not clear which noun the participial adjective modifies {arriving late, the teacher scowled as the student clattered into the classroom} (did the teacher or the student arrive late?). Editors also needs to watch out for errors when a pronoun follows the participial adjective {arriving late, his books fell to the floor} (did the student or the student’s books arrive late?) (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.68 and 5.84).

Past participial adjectives are usually modified by an adverb {badly injured, the cat lashed out at its rescuers}. The adverbs quite, barely, and little are often used as modifiers {quite frightened} {barely dressed} {little recognized} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.89).

Participial prepositions, such as //assuming//, //barring//, //concerning//, //considering//, //during//, //notwithstanding//, //owing to//, //provided//, //regarding//, //respecting//, and //speaking,// are exempt from the rule of being connected to a noun {considering the formatting problems, the project went quickly} {regarding the lateness of the project, he had nothing to say}. (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.164).

=4.2.3.3 Articles=

The articles //a//, //an//, and //the// are adjectives. //The// typically places a definite limit on the noun {the grain of sand}, while //a// and //an// are indefinite {a grain of sand} (//Chicago Manual of Style//, 5.69).

=4.2.3.4 Placement of Adjectives=

An adjective usually precedes the noun it modifies {precise writing}, but there are many situations in which an adjective can follow a noun. When an adjective and a possessive modify the same noun, the possessive usually comes first {citizens’ inalienable rights}. When an adjective follows a linking verb, it is called a predicate adjective {sky is beautiful} (//Chicago Manual of Style//, 5.81 and 5.83).

=4.2.3.5 Phrasal Adjectives=

Phrasal adjectives function as a unit to modify a noun. Generally, a hyphen should be used to connect the words in the phrase to reduce confusion of meaning {sky-blue walls}.

=4.2.4 Adverbs=

Adverbs can be distinguished from adjectives by determining which part of speech they modify: adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or another adverb; adjectives modify nouns or pronouns (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.143). Adverbs answer the questions where, when, why, how, and how often. Their usefulness and versatility are described directly below. However, careful editors will keep in mind that overuse of adverbs can destroy the natural rhythm of the prose (Tufte 108).

=4.2.4.1 The Structure of Adverbs=

Adverbs are frequently derived from adjectives by adding the suffix –ly to an adjective {beautifully}. The –ly suffix means “like” {scholarly, scholar-like}. But there are also adverbs that are not formed this manner, such as //then//, //now//, //soon//, //here//, //there//, //everywhere//, //afterwards//, //often//, //sometimes//, //seldom//, and //always// (Gray and Kolln 15). Two or more words can function as a phrasal adverb {now and then} or can be combined as a compound adverb {nevertheless}. Editors should avoid compound adverbs because they are no longer commonly used in American English (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.148).

Like adjectives, adverbs have three forms of comparison: positive {often} {quickly}, comparative {oftener} {more quickly}, and superlative {oftenest} {most quickly}. Most one-syllable adverbs form the comparative by adding –er {sooner} and the superlative by adding –est {soonest}. Multisyllable adverbs usually form the comparative with //more// or //less// {more seldom} and the superlative with most or least {most seldom}.

Some adverbs have irregular forms {badly, worse, worst} {little, less, least}. Editors should check the dictionary if in doubt (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.152).

Some prepositions, such as //above//, //behind//, //below//, //by//, //down//, //in//, //off//, //on//, or //up,// can also be used as adverbs.Whether or not the word has an object distinguishes prepositions, which always have an object, from adverbs, which do not have objects {the box is behind the house, we walked behind} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.172).

Not all adverbs are comparable {then} {here} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.153).

The words //very// and //quite// can be used to intensify an adverb {very seldom} {quite frequently}.

=4.2.4.2 Placement of Adverbs=

Adverbs can be placed in many different slots within the sentence (Tufte 94), but they should be placed as close as possible to the word or words they modify, because a misplaced adverb can change the meaning of a sentence {//she learned her lines for the play absolutely} (//describes the degree to which she learned her lines) {//she absolutely learned her lines for the play} (//she did in fact learn her lines for the play) (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.155).

If the adverb qualifies an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, or a conjunction, it should immediately precede the word or phrase qualified {the baby is sometimes shy} {always happily working} {sometimes on the table} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.156). If an adverb modifies an intransitive verb, it usually immediately follows the verb {the child wept incessantly}. However, the adverbs //always //, //never//, //often//, //generally//, //rarely//, and //seldom// may precede the verb {the child often wept} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.157).

If an adverb qualifies a verb phrase, it is usually placed between the auxiliary verb and the main verb {he has relentlessly stuck to the same story} (see 4.2.2.4 for examples of auxiliary verbs). Editors should note that—contrary to a common misconception—there is no rule against placing the adverb in this position, including when the verb is an infinitive (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.160).

Adverbs and the adjectives they modify may appear at any point in the sentence, often set off by a pair of commas. This versatility makes them useful in strengthening the cohesion of one’s writing (Tufte 95).

=4.2.5 Pronouns=

A pronoun is a word that substitutes for another noun or pronoun that has already been named earlier in the sentence. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, gender, and case (for a discussion of how these apply to both nouns and pronouns, see 4.2.1.1.1 [case], 4.2.1.1.2 [number], 4.2.1.1.3 [gender], and 4.2.1.1.4 [person] (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.39).

=4.2.5.1 Classes of Pronouns=

There are six classes of pronouns: personal (//I//, //you//, //he//, //she//, //it//, //we//, and //they//) demonstrative (//that// and //this//), interrogative (//what//, //which//, and //who//), relative (//that//, //what//, //which//, and //who//, indefinite (//another//, //any//, //both//, //each//, //either//, //neither//, //none//, //one//, //other//, //some//, and //such//) and pronominal adjective (any pronoun used as an adjective [except personal pronouns, who, and none]). Note that several pronouns, including //that//, //what//, and //which//, belong to more than one class (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.44).

=4.2.5.2 Forms of Personal Pronouns=

Singular pronouns have first (person speaking), second (person spoken to) and third (person spoken about) forms. Each person can also be in the nominative, objective, or possessive case (for a discussion of case, see 4.2.1.1.1).

First person singular pronouns are //I// in nominative case, //me// in objective case, and //my// (as a limiting adjective to qualify a noun or nouns) or //mine// (as an absolute [also called independent] form that stands alone without a noun) in possessive case. First person plural pronouns are //we// in nominative case, //us// in objective case, and //our// (as a limiting adjective to qualify a noun or nouns) or //ours// (as an absolute [also called independent] form that stands alone without a noun) in possessive case.

Second person singular pronouns are the same in singular or plural: //you// in both nominative and objective case and //your// (as a limiting adjective to qualify a noun or nouns) or //yours// (as an absolute [also called independent] form that stands alone without a noun) in possessive case.

Third person singular pronouns are //he//, //she//, or //it// in nominative case; //him//, //her//, or //it// in objective case; and //his//, //her//, //hers//, or //its// in possessive case. Third person plural pronouns are //they// in nominative case, //them// in objective case, and //their// (as a limiting adjective to qualify a noun or nouns) or //theirs// (as an absolute [also called independent] form that stands alone without a noun) in possessive case (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.47 and 5.52).

Note that none of the possessive personal pronouns are spelled with an apostrophe (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.52).

For compound personal pronoun forms, see 4.2.5.3, directly below.

=4.2.5.3 Compound Pronouns=

Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding the suffix –self or –selves: //myself//, //ourselves//, //yourself//, //yourselves//, //himself//, //herself//, //itself//, and //themselves//. They are the same form in both the nominative case and the objective case. When these compound personal pronouns are used for emphasis they are called intensive pronouns {they themselves did not come to the party}. When compound personal pronouns refer to the subject of the verb they are called reflexive pronouns {I delivered the message myself} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.53).

Compound relative pronouns are formed by adding the suffix –ever. The compound relative pronouns are //whoever//, //whomever//, //whichever//, and //whatever//. These pronouns are used to refer to any or all persons or things.

Compound indefinite pronouns include //anybody//, //anyone//, //anything//, //everybody//, //everyone//, //everything//, //nobody//, //no one//, //oneself//, //somebody//, and //someone//. //Each//, //either//, and //neither// are also called distributive pronouns because they separate the objects referred to from others referred to nearby. When an indefinite pronoun is the subject of a verb, it is usually singular {anybody going to the parade should wear a jacket}. However, use the plural form if the word needs to convey a plural sense {everybody went to the parade together}. Nominative and objective forms of compound indefinite pronouns are the same. Possessive case is formed by //’s// {is this anybody’s coat?} or the adverb else plus ’s {that’s someone else’s coat} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.64)

=4.2.5.4 Pronoun Antecedents=

The noun named earlier in the sentence is called the pronoun’s antecedent. The pronouns //I// and //you// do not require an antecedent, since the antecedent is implied {I went to the circus} {You are welcome}. //It// does not require an antecedent when it is as an expletive to fill a vacant noun slot {It is time to go}. //What// is used without an antecedent to mean //that which// {Is this what you meant?}. But if there is an antecedent, use //who// {is that the man who you were referring to?}, //that// if the relative clause is restrictive {the book that we were looking for}, or //which// if the relative clause is nonrestrictive {the book, which was very interesting, turned up in lost and found). If the antecedent nouns are singular, of different genders and joined by //or// or //nor//, recast the sentence so that it uses non-sexist language {he or she will win her first gold medal//,// this will be the first gold medal for one of the contestants} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.43).

=4.2.5.5 Rules of Pronoun Number=

In addition to the rules of number regarding nouns and pronouns stated above in 4.2.1.1.2, note that a collective noun takes a singular pronoun if the noun refers to a unit {the jury gave its verdict}, but a plural if the noun refers to individuals {the jury submitted their votes}. A single noun that is modified by two or more adjectives to describe different kinds of the noun usually takes a plural pronoun {jazz and classical music are each appreciated for their unique qualities}. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns that are joined by //and// take a plural pronoun {the bride and groom opened their presents after the honeymoon} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.40).

There are some exceptions to the rules of number stated in the previous paragraph: 1) When two or more antecedents connected by //and// are part of one object, use a singular pronoun {beginning, middle, and end is its structure}, 2) When two or more singular antecedents are connected by //and// and modified by //each//, //every//, or //no//, the pronoun referring to the antecedents is singular {every plant and animal needs its nourishment}, 3) When two or more singular antecedents are connected by or, nor, either–or, or neither–nor, they are treated separately and referred to by a singular pronoun {neither feast nor famine made its appearance}, 4) When two or more antecedents of different numbers are connected by //or// or nor, the pronoun’s number agrees with that of the nearest (usually the last) antecedent {neither the sister nor the brothers visited their grandparents}, and 5) When two or more antecedents of different numbers are connected by and, they are usually referred to by a plural pronoun regardless of the nouns’ order {the brothers and sister visited their grandparents (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.40).

When there are two or more antecedents that differ in person and are connected by //and//, //or// or //nor//, the pronoun takes the person of only one antecedent. First is preferred to second or third, and second is preferred to third {you and I need to work on our homework; you and he can go to your seats}.

If the antecedents are two persons of different gender and joined by //and//, use the plural //their// {the bride and groom recited their vows at the ceremony}. If the antecedents are of different genders and joined by //or// or //nor//, recast the sentence to avoid having to choose the gender of the pronoun {the boy nor the girl passed her test, neither of the children passed their test}.

=4.2.6 Prepositions=

Prepositions always have a noun, adjective, or adverb objects: they show the relationship between the words {between them and the visitors} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.162). They can indicate five different relationships to their objects: location, direction, association, agency, and time {by the road, toward the front, with the boy, by default, until the morning} (Tufte 113-14).

=4.2.6.1. Types of Prepositions=

Simple prepositions are monosyllabic words, including //as//, //at//, //by//, //down//, //for//, //from//, //in//, //like//, //of//, //off//, //on//, //plus//, //since//, //through//, //to//, //toward//, //up//, and //with//. A compound preposition has two or more syllables and may be made up of two or more words, such as //about//, //above//, //across//, //after//, //against//, //alongside//, //around//, //before//, //below//, //beneath//, //between//, //despite//, //except//, //inside//, //onto//, //opposite//, //throughout//, //underneath//, //until//, or //without// (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.163).

A participial preposition is a participial form functioning as a preposition or subordinating conjunction. Examples include //assuming//, //barring//, //concerning//, //considering//, //during//, //notwithstanding//, //owing to//, //provided//, //regarding//, //respecting//, and //speaking//. Participial prepositions can be used with no subject without creating a dangling modifier {owing to the road conditions, we kept to the main highways} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.164).

A phrasal preposition consists of two or more prepositions used as a unit. These include //according to//, //because of//, //by means of//, //by reason of//, //by way of//, //contrary to//, //for the sake of//, //in accordance with//, //in addition to//, //in case of//, //in consideration of//, //in front of//, //in regard to//, //in respect to//, //in spite of//, //instead of//, //on account of//, //out of//, //with reference to//, //with regard to//, and //with respect to//. Editors should avoid these phrases if a simpler one will do. For example, //with regard to your letter// should be replaced with //about your letter// (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.164).

=4.2.6.2. Prepositional Phrases=

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any words that modify the object. A prepositional phrase can be used as a noun {to let people go hungry would be a crime}, and adverb (also called an adverbial phrase) {throw it into the garbage can}, or an adjective (also called an adjectival phrase) {the difficulties of old age} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.166).

An elliptical prepositional phrase is one that is an independent expression and has no antecedent. These phrases include //for example//, //for instance//, //in any event//, //in a word//, //in the last analysis//, and //in the long run// {in the long run, we were better off without the inheritance}.

=4.2.6.3 Position of Prepositions=

A preposition is usually followed by a noun or pronoun (or noun or pronoun phrase) in the objective case, but can also be followed by adjective, adverb, verb, or phrase. A preposition typically comes before its object {underneath the table}, but there are exceptions: a preposition used with the relative pronoun that (or that understood) always follows the object {this isn’t the road (that) I want to go on}. A preposition sometimes follows the pronouns //which// {which road do you want to go on?} and //whom// {the sister is the person whom I must ride with} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.162).

Editors need to be especially careful that prepositional phrases used as adverbs or adjectives are placed near the word they modify so that the relationship is clear. A //Los Angeles Times columnist// illustrates possible comic results of ambiguous prepositional phrases in this sentence written by Jack Smith in //How to win a Pullet Surprise// (//Structural Essentials of English [New York: Harcourt Brace, 1951])// quoted in Virginia Tufte’s //Artful Sentences: Syntax as Style:// A man chasing a cat with a broom in his underwear is ambience by any definition (113).

A preposition may be placed at the end of a sentence {that’s the first one I’ve heard of} (Chicago Manual of Style 5.169).

=4.2.6.4 Avoiding Overuse of Prepositions=

Editors should be on the lookout for overuse of prepositions. The optimal amount is about one preposition per 10 to 15 words (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.174). If a sentence is clear without a prepositional phrase, eliminate the phrase {one of the most important things in life is virtue, one of the most important things is virtue}. Eliminate nominalizations and the unnecessary prepositions that accompany them. Suffixes, such as –tion, -al, and –ment convert verbs into nouns {admire, admiration} {agree, agreement} that require prepositional phrases {my admiration of her, our agreement to leave}. Editors should change the nominalization to a verb and eliminate the prepositional phrase {I admire her, we agree to leave}. Consider replacing a weak prepositional phrase with an adverb {she wrote in secret, she secretly wrote}. Replace a prepositional phrase beginning with //of// with a possessive {that is a common mistake of beginners, that is a common beginner’s mistake}.

Using active voice can eliminate the need to state by whom or what the action was performed {the decision was reached by the committee; the committee reached a decision} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.174-79, Rude 268-70).

=4.2.7 Conjunctions=

Conjunctions connect sentences, clauses, or words within a clause (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.180).

=4.2.7.1 Coordinating Conjunctions=

Coordinating conjunctions join words or groups of words of equal grammatical rank {the hare and the turtle were both in the race} (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.180). There are only seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so (Rude 154).

=4.2.7.2 Subordinating Conjunctions=

Subordinating conjunctions join words of unequal rank (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.187). Some examples of subordinating conjunctions are: //after//, //although//, //as//, //because//, //if//, //once//, //since//, //that//, //though//, //till//, //unless//, //until//, //when//, //whenever//, //where//, //wherever//, and //while//. The clause following a subordinate conjunction is always a dependent clause {I will not start until everyone is here} (Rude 154).

=4.2.8 Verbals=

Some verbs and verb phrases function as parts of speech other than verbs and are known as verbals. These include participles, gerunds and infinitives, which modify nouns while also describing action by the subject (Tufte 63).

=4.2.8.1 Present Participles=

Present participles are formed by adding –ing to the verb stem. Present participles can be used as predicates describing the current or incomplete action of the sentence’s main verb {the river is flooding}, as present participle adjectival {a frightening scenario}, or as a gerund (noun), which functions as a subject {running away is not a solution}, object of a verb {I enjoy running}, predicate nominative {her biggest challenge is exercising regularly}, or object of a preposition {lose weight by exercising more} (Rude 67-68, //Chicago Manual of Style// 4.11).

=4.2.8.2 Past Participles=

Past participles of regular verbs are identical in form to the past indicative. Past participles of irregular verbs may or may not be identical, so editors should check the dictionary if in doubt (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.108 and 5.129).

=4.3 Conventions of Usage=

=4.3.1 Standard Written English vs. Dialect=

Standard written English adheres to all of the traditional rules of usage. Although editors should consult dictionaries for word meanings, they must also consult a good usage guide to advice on how to correctly use the words. One such guide can be found in the //Chicago Manual of Style// in section 5.202.

Dialects vary from standard written English and reflect locally accepted forms of verbal expression. Writers can use dialect, but standard written English is usually better when writing for general audiences (//Chicago Manual of Style// 5.201).

=4.3.2 Idioms=

Grammar does not cover every possible utterance of the English language. Some phrases that are commonly used cannot be explained by grammar rules or logic, yet they are acceptable, if not in formal situations, at least in casual ones. We learn which idioms are acceptable by being familiar with the language. Editors who are editing materials written by people who are not native speakers of English need to be on the lookout for misused idioms (Rude 166).

Prepositions are often used in idiomatic phrases {//by// accident, //on// purpose, excited //about// a project, bored //with// it, sick //of// it (Rude 166). Idioms formed with verbs often signal an informal tone of the writing {//turn down//, //bring about//, //bring on//, //put up with//, //stand for//, //think up//, //take off//, //take up//, //look down on//, //brush aside//, //get on with//, //walk out on//, //come down with//, //swear off//, //write off//} (Kolln and Gray 130).

=4.2.3 Bias-Free Language=

Writers who produce prose for general audiences should avoid using language that reinforces stereotypes of age, birth or family status, disability, economic class, ethnicity, political or religious beliefs, race, sex, or sexual orientation (//MLA Style Manual// 3.2).

The Modern Language association gives detailed guidelines for nondiscriminatory language:

> == For example, many writers no longer use //he//, //him//, or //his// to express a meaning that includes women as well as men. The use of //she//, //her//, and //hers// to refer to a person of no particular sex can also be distracting and momentarily confusing. Both usages can often be avoided through a revision that recasts the sentence into the plural or that eliminates the pronoun altogether. Another technique is to make the discussion refer to a person who is identified, so that there is a reason to use a specific singular pronoun. //They//, //them//, //their//, and //theirs// cannot logically be applied to a single person, and //he or she//, //her or him//, and //her or his// are cumbersome alternatives to be used sparingly. Many authors now also avoid terms that unnecessarily integrate a person’s sex with a job or role. For instance, //anchorman//, //policewoman//, //stewardess//, and //poetess// are commonly replaced with //anchor//, //police officer//, //flight attendant//, and //poet// (3.2).

=WORKS CITED=

Gray, L., Kolln, M. //Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects//. 6th ed. New York: Pearson, 2010. Print.

Modern Language Association. //MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing//. 3rd ed. New York: The Modern > Language Association of America, 2008. Print. > Rude, C. //Technical Editing//. 4th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. Print.

University of Chicago Press. //The Chicago Manual of Style//. 15th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2003. Print, Web.