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=CHAPTER 1:TECHNICAL EDITING IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY= 

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Technical Editing 1.3 Working with Writers 1.4 Types of Editing 1.5 Editing Technologies and Proofreaders' Marks 1.6 Editing for International Audiences

**1.1 INTRODUCTION**

**1.1.1 Editor’s Roles and Responsibilities **
Editors are often thought of as people who “clean up” documents, correcting grammatical errors and typos where needed. Such tasks, however, only a fraction of what most editors do. Editors also help writers and project team members //manage// content and see it through to publication. Editors mark-up manuscripts, revise content, provide subject matter expertise, manage the publishing process, and more.

Although it may be difficult to comprehensively define the role of an editor in a universal way, this guide will concentrate on what Carolyn Rude describes as the two primary technical editing functions: //text editing// and //preparing documents for publication//. The following sections describe these functions.

**1.1.2 Text Editing**
Text editing is more complex than it may seem at first glance. Text editing includes two major components: comprehensive editing and copyediting.
 * Comprehensive editing** is also referred to as //developmental editing, macro editing, analysis-based editing,// and //substantive editing.// This type of editing requires an understanding of the subject matter, the audience, and purpose of the documentation. An editor reviews and edits the content itself to ensure it can be understood by its readers.
 * Copyediting** is also referred to as //manuscript editing// or //line editing.// This type of editing involves an acute attention to detail. Copyeditors review and correct spelling, punctuation, grammar, usage, style, accuracy, and completeness.

**1.1.3 Preparing Documents for Publication**
An editor works with the entire project team to see a documentation project through to publication. An editor may work with the writer in a comprehensive and copyediting capacity, as well as manage contracts with printers, web hosts, graphic designers, financial stakeholders, and other interested parties. In this capacity, the editor must work to establish and maintain important relationships among team members and stakeholders for a beneficial outcome on a project. For an expanded description of the types of editing, see Rude, pp. 3-17 and Chicago, 2.48.

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=**1.2** **TECHNICAL EDITING**=

**1.2.1 Overview** of Technical Editing
All editors are responsible for helping to make writers effective, but technical editors work with technical subjects. Technical writing and editing consist of a variety of subjects, including but not limited to computer science, engineering, medical, scientific, government, agriculture, education and business. Technical editors often perform comprehensive editing that requires they be subject matter experts in the field of work they are editing. Generally, technical documents should answer questions and solve problems, which is often what distinguishes technical writing from other types of writing. Technical documents enable readers to act upon the information. Technical subject matter often denotes the method of working with the subject matter – to analyze, explain, interpret, inform, or instruct. //For more information//, see Rude pp. 15-16.

**1.2.2 Document Process**
Technical writers and editors use specialized knowledge to convey specialized information. There are a variety of document types that technical editors are involved in, including instruction manuals and online help, proposals, feasibility studies, research reports, and websites. The process of writing and editing may vary from person to person and each document type may require different life cycles. The process of writing generally follows five main stages. § Planning and Researching § Organizing and Drafting § Improving the Style § Designing § Revising and Editing //For more information// about these stages, see Johnson-Sheehan pp. 19-35.

** 1.2.3 Core Competencies **
The //Core Competencies for Graduate Students in Technical Communication//, developed by New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), illustrate the most important skills a technical communicators and editors should possess.

Back to Top = = = = =**1.3** **WORKING WITH WRITERS**=

**1.3.1** **Technical Writers**
Technical writers are the conduit between subject matter expert and reader. A technical writer often becomes a subject matter expert as a result of researching a subject in preparation for writing about it. The role of the writer is an important one, as the person with the most comprehensive technical knowledge often may not be the most able communicator. The writer's role then, is to effectively communicate technical knowledge for the reader to act upon.

**1.3.2** **Technical Editors**
Technical editors often manage writers, subject matter experts [A1], and other team members to complete a project, and even coordinate publishing tasks. In addition, editors offer their language expertise to the project, which ensures clarity and readability for the reader. Often, writing projects may be completed by team members that are not all physically located in the same place and may not have worked with each other before.


 * 1.3.2.1 Editing Remotely**

Managing an asynchronous team presents challenges. Varying physical locations may mean working with writers in different time zones and managing different work styles and schedules remotely can be difficult for even the most seasoned editors and project managers.

Fortunately, with the ability to work in this manner comes the availability of technology to facilitate distance work. Meetings and demonstrations can be conducted through online meeting software on the Internet, such as [|WebEx] and [|Go Meeting] – as well as free alternatives including [|Fuze Meeting], [|Vyew], and [|iVisit] – to facilitate product demonstrations and documentation review. Instant messaging and e-mail are widely accepted communication tools, and computer programs like [|Microsoft Workspace] and [|Google Docs], among others, enable colleagues to share and review electronic files. Even when colleagues are not working in remote locations, these types of technological advances have facilitated communication, document sharing, and document editing.

**1.3.3** **The Writer-Editor Relationship**
A writer may work alone or with a team of writers and subject matter experts to complete a project. Writer-editor relationships succeed for many reasons, some of which include: good writing and editing, good management, and collaborative partnerships. These relationships can fail for many reasons but often include: poor writing and editing, poor management, and oversized egos.

A successful relationship between writers and editors is often the result of individuals who consider themselves partners working together for a common goal, despite the fact that there may be disagreements and stress. Rude lists writers’ common dislikes/likes of editors, most of which concerns editing itself, while other dislikes/likes focus on management style.

As in any working relationship, working with others with respect and effective communication is often the key to success. Writers are justifiably irritated when editors make unwarranted or unexplained edits; or change the meaning of what the writer wrote.

At the heart of a successful working relationship between writer and editor is effective work and effective communication. Warranting evidence for edits can help avoid this tension. For example, when editing for grammar or punctuation, it is prudent to include specific references to __The Chicago Manual of Style__. By warranting evidence, the writer recognizes the edits as standard and can look up the reference for more information. A writer respects the editor by taking the edits seriously and thoughtfully.

In chapter three of __Technical Editing__, Rude outlines steps an editor can take to manage the job effectively. // For more information //, see Rude pp. 35-44.
 * 1. Participate early.** Participate in planning to agree on project goals from the start and eliminate potential conflict.
 * 2. Clarify expectations.** Communicate guidelines for style, usage, punctuation, spelling of technical terms, and visual design; these should be available to writers at the beginning so established standards will be understood and adhered to.
 * 3. Work with the writer throughout the development.** Ongoing collaboration and communication throughout the project keeps the writer on schedule and enables the initial plan to be adjusted as needed.
 * 4. Don’t surprise.** Set expectations with the writer about the types of edits to expect and discuss plans for extensive revisions with the writer in advance.
 * 5. Be prompt.** Get work done on time and let others know when edits will be complete.

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=**1.4.** **TYPES OF EDITING**=

1.4.1 Four Levels of Editing
Documentation requires different levels of editing at various stages of development. An editor may do one or all types of editing to a document, depending on what is required. An editor should set expectations with a writer ahead of time about what types of edits will be performed. When editing, (time permitting) assess the document through levels of editing:
 * Level 1: Revision** --- looks at the document as a whole. Often called “global editing,” revision pays attention to the document’s subject, purpose, readers, and context of use.
 * Level 2: Substantive editing** --- also known as “comprehensive editing,” pays special attention to content organization, and design of the document.
 * Level 3: Copyediting** --- also known as “manuscript editing,” concentrates on revising the style for clarity, persuasion, and consistency, especially at the sentence and paragraph levels.
 * Level 4: Proofreading** --- often performed with copyediting, catches grammar mistakes, mistaken, misspellings, and usage problems.

**1.4.2 Revision**
Revising a document at this stage requires that an editor look at the document as a whole and determine if its subject and purpose are appropriate for its readers in the context it will be used. Some questions to ask while editing a document at this stage:

§ Has the subject changed or evolved? § Was the scope of the subject limited or expanded? § Has the document strayed from the subject anywhere?
 * SUBJECT:** Check whether the subject needs to be narrowed or broadened.

§ What should the document to achieve? § Is the document’s purpose still the same? § Has the purpose become more specific or has it broadened?
 * PURPOSE:** Make sure the document is achieving its purpose.

§ Do you now know more about the primary readers’ needs? //(Primary readers are the action takers – the ones to whom the document is addressed.)// § Has the writer anticipated readers’ values and attitudes? § Does the document need to more thoroughly address the secondary, tertiary, and gatekeeper readers in the document? //(Secondary readers are those who advise primary readers; Tertiary readers include others who may have an interest in the document; Gatekeeper readers are often supervisors who will look over the document before it is presented to the primary readers.)//
 * READERS:** Looking back at the original profile of the readers, think about the characteristics of the primary readers and other possible readers.

§ Are the physical places where readers will read or use the document thoroughly understood? § Are the economic, political, and ethical issues that will influence how the readers interpret the document thoroughly understood? § Have the personal, corporate, and industry-related issues that will also shape the readers’ interpretation been anticipated?
 * CONTEXT OF USE:** Consider the contexts in which the document might be read or used.

**1.4.3 Substantive Editing**
At this stage, the purpose and context has been assessed and addressed and editors should now concentrate on content, organization, and design of the document.

§ Are there any places (gaps) where the document lacks proof or support for its claims? § Does the content need more research to support its points? § Are there any places where information that the readers do not need to know to make a decision or take action is included?
 * CONTENT:** Look for any gaps or digressions in the content.

§ Are there any places where the document deviates from the organization pattern of the genre it follows? Are these deviations helpful toward achieving its purpose? Or, should it be reorganized to suit the genre? § Does the introduction clearly identify the subject, while stating the purpose and the main point? Should the introduction include more background information or stress the importance of the subject? § Does the conclusion restate the main point, re-stress the importance of the subject, and look to the future?
 * ORGANIZATION:** A document should conform to a recognizable genre, and it should have an identifiable introduction, body, and conclusion.

§ Is the text readable in the situations and places where people will use it? § Does the design reflect readers’ values and attitudes? Is it straightforward for conservative readers, or is it more innovative for progressive readers? § Does the design properly use principles of balance, alignment, grouping, consistency, and contrast? § Does the design clarify the structure of the text with titles and subheads? § Do the graphics support the text, and do they clarify difficult points?
 * DESIGN:** The document should be designed for the readers and the contexts in which it will be used.

1 **.4.4 Copyediting**
When copyediting, the editor assumes that the content, organization, and design are mostly set and will not change. Copyediting should concentrate on improving style and consistency, especially at the sentence and paragraph levels. Headings and graphics should be appropriate and accurate.

§ Are the subjects of the sentences easy to locate? § Do the verbs of the sentences express the action of the sentences? § Can any unnecessary prepositional phrases be elminated? § Are the sentences breathing length?
 * SENTENCES:** Look over the sentences to make sure they are clear and concise.

§ Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence (a claim) and enough support to back it up? § Would any paragraph be stronger if a transition sentence were included at the beginning or a point sentence at the end? § Are the subjects in the paragraph aligned, or could given/new strategies be used to smooth out the text? § Would transitions or transitional phrases help bridge any gaps between sentences?
 * PARAGRAPHS:** Make sure paragraphs support specific claims. Rework the sentences in the paragraphs to improve the flow of the text.

§ Do the headings in the document properly reflect the information that follows them? § Do the headings make the document scannable, highlighting places where important information can be found? § Are there clear level headings that help readers identify the structure of the document and the importance of each part of the document?
 * HEADINGS:** The headings should be easy to understand and consistently used.

§ Does each graphic tell a simple story? § Does each graphic support the written text without replacing it? § Are the graphics clearly titled and referred to by number in the written text?
 * GRAPHICS:** Look over the graphics in the document to make sure they support the written text. Check the graphics for accuracy.

**1.4.5 Proofreading**
At the point of proofreading a document, it is assumed that is has been reviewed, revised and completed in all other ways. With proofreading, focus only on the mechanical details like grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage. Focus on errors, and make only minor changes to text and style if needed.

§ Remember, readers will notice grammatical mistakes. Don’t let them sabotage an otherwise solid document § Grammar checkers are notoriously unreliable. There is no substitute for mastering grammar rules. § When editing, an editor should pay attention to his/her own reactions. When a stumble or pause occurs while reading, chances are good that the editor has stumbled upon a grammatical mistake.
 * GRAMMAR:**

§ Punctuation is intended to help readers understand the text. § Use proofreading marks carefully to communicated clearly to the writer.
 * PUNCTUATION:**

§ Too many of these errors will cause readers to seriously question the writer's commitment to quality. § Use the spell checker feature in the word processor. However, spell checkers are not perfect, so pay careful attention to spelling. Words that are spelled correctly may still be used in unintended way, particularly when there are variations to the spelling of words in different usage. § Refer to a dictionary to look up technical terms not found in typical spell checkers.
 * SPELLING AND TYPOS:**

§ Many words seem the same, but have different meanings. Keep a usage guide handy. § Dictionaries are also good resources to distinguish ambiguous word usage.
 * WORD USAGE:**

//For more information see// Johnson-Sheehan pp. 314-325.

Back to Top = = = = =**1.5** **EDITING TECHNOLOGIES AND PROOFREADERS'S MARKS**=

**1.5.1 Introduction **
Just as writer-editor relationships vary, so do methods of editing and incorporating edits. Traditionally, an editor will mark up a paper copy of written work, with suggested changes for the writer. The writer then decides which edits to accept and which to reject. Today, although manual paper editing is still commonplace, editors have more options to edit electronically. Editors may make changes directly to the digital file, often using the program’s inherent revision marking function to note changes. Microsoft Word and Adobe Professional are two programs that contain features that track changes made to a document as they are made. There are pros and cons to both manual and electronic editing and the writer-editor relationship may determine which method is used.

**1.5.2 Paper Editing**
Editing documents on paper reinforces the writer’s sense of ownership, as no actual changes are made to the electronic file itself. Writers may feel that they have more control over the decision about which markups are implemented and which are not when editing is done on paper. Of course, much depends on the writer-editor relationship, but many still choose to do paper markups for a variety of reasons. A paper document may often seem more portable and easier to read, making it seem easier to make manual edits on paper.

**1.5.3 Proofreaders' Marks**
Industry-standard proofreaders' marks should be used when editing a writer’s work. Using this standard method of markups will clearly communicate editorial suggestions.



1.5.4 Placing the Marks on the Page
If the manuscript is double-spaced, marks can be placed within the lines; if single-spaced, show in the text where changes should be made and indicate the changes themselves in the margins. To distinguish edits from comments in the margins, circle comments to indicate that they are not edits.

Assumptions should not be made that the writer or production specialist will make changes globally if they are only marked them in one place in the document. Production specialists in particular may only make the changes indicated on each specific page. Each place of change should be marked to assure that edits will be made appropriately – remember, communication is key.

Punctuation marks are particularly difficult to indicate in markup because of their small size. Consider making punctuation edits on a separate page or marked up copy that is separate from other edits. Using circles and carets are standard marks; marks for colons and semi-colons may vary among industry standards. Whichever method is chosen, effective communication with the production and writing team is important.

1.5.5 Electronic Editing
Electronic editing is used for a variety of reasons. Electronic editing may be considered fast, less time-consuming, collaborative, good for copy that is electronic in nature //(e.g., a web page or e-learning module)// and provides a clear means of communicating suggestions and changes to a document, regardless of the physical location of editor and writer.

1.5.6 Automated Typographic Markup (ATM)
Electronic editing can take many forms. Some edit using a feature that keeps track of changes as they are made, such as the features available in Microsoft Word, Adobe Professional and FrameMaker. This feature, also known as Automated typographic markup (ATM) enables the editor to make changes directly to the document that are automatically tracked with various marks such as underline, double-underline, colors, and strikethrough. Although FrameMaker does not track as the changes are made, it does have a document comparison feature. Document comparison electronically compares two documents and marks the changes between them. Other programs, such as Workshare, work with other editing programs like Microsoft Word to compare changes between two documents.

1.5.7 Manual Typographic Markup (MTM)
Manual typographic markup (MTM) is a method of using various character styles to mark changes electronically, in a way that can be reviewed on paper. This method is not as common, but may be useful for those who need to review changes on paper.

1.5.8 Electronic Overlay
In some programs, such as Adobe Acrobat, FrameMaker, and others, changes and comments are marked as a separate layer from the content itself. This method is often preferred, as changes are not made directly to content.

1.5.9 Impact of Electronic Editing
Some editors may simply make changes and not track them. This is one of the issues writers and editors may have with electronic editing. Even when changes are tracked, it may be considered difficult to distinguish between the original text and the revisions. Electronic editing may also jeopardize the traditional writer-editor relationship, as editors that do not track the changes take some of the control over the content that has traditionally belonged to the writer.

Some writers and editors choose not to edit electronically because they find reading copy marked electronically to be difficult to read – on paper or on screen. This may change as improvements are made to monitors that may produce higher quality, high definition, onscreen viewing.

1.5.10 Marking Digital Copy
Sometimes technical editors work with files that represent online content such as websites, e-learning, or online help. There may even be more than one format to edit for the same content. For example, an instructional quick reference guide may have a format appropriate for printing, as well as a version that is meant for online display and may include interactivity created in Adobe Captivate or Techsmith’s Camtasia. Each may be created in different formats that will require editing. Sometimes technical editing may also involve working with and editing code such as HTML, SGML, or XML.

Unlike paper copy, marking digital copy may involve less direction on procedural matters //(e.g., bold, spacing, underline, etc.)//, as an editor may choose to make those changes directly. Editing of digital copy may also be more structural in nature. An editor may change the tags that define the styles and structure of the document layout directly in the document instead of marking it up for revisions by another person. This is often done not to one page in a digital document, but rather to the cascading style sheets (CSS) where appearance and structure are designated and used by each page for online content.

//For more information// see Rude, pp. 48-82, and Chicago Manual of Style 3.1.

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=1.6 EDITING FOR INTERNATIONAL AUDIENCES=

1.6.1 Introduction to Editing for International Audiences
As you have undoubtedly heard it said, we are “going global.” What does this mean for the editor? It makes an editor’s job as project manager even more critical during needs assessment for a project. An editor should assess who the audience is – not just by job definition and other common factors, but also by where the readers are located, what culture and customs they follow, and how they will interpret what they are reading. Whether the writing project is for writing correspondence, reports, or manuals, an editor must consider the global audience.

1.6.2 Culture and Communication
Varner and Beamer (Rude p. 348) describe categories of differences in culture and how they affect communication, including: § ways of thinking and knowing (linear and logical or dualistic); § attitudes toward achieving and activity; § attitudes toward nature, time, and death; § sense of the self; and § social organization.

As an editor, consider cultural expectations of formality (e.g., addressing a recipient by first name). Look beyond grammar and style handbooks to edit well. Learn about the customs and cultures to be effective.

1.6.3 Globalization v. Localization

 * 1.6.3.1 Globalization**

At the beginning of a project, audience analysis is an important consideration. Part of that consideration may be the native language of the audience. Globalization, also known as internationalization, involves making a document or product usable around the globe. To do this, a single language is used, to be understood by all – a //lingua franca//. This approach is often considered easier, cheaper, and more accurate than translation. English is often chosen as a //lingua franca//, but writers and editors should be aware that there are different varieties of English around the world (such as spoken in the United States, Great Britain, Scotland).The dialects of British English and American English are the most frequently taught versions of English taught as a second language. See MS-PTC Editing Guide 6.6.1.6 to view an extensive list of American/British words and their differences.


 * 1.6.3.2 Verbal Cross-Cultural Communication**

At times, technical communicators will need to convey information to non-native speakers on a spoken level. Bill Greuner, a member of the Boston chapter of the Society for Professional Technical Communicators, compiled the following list of suggestions by his colleagues on how to be understood across linguistic borders:
 * Speak slowly and enunciate clearly
 * Have face-to-face conversations whenever possible because body language adds meaning. (Every respondent stressed this particular point.)
 * Avoid noisy locations where multiple conversations are taking place
 * Keep conversations one-on-one in order to avoid potential distractions
 * Remember that phone calls are difficult because of no face-to-face contact
 * Pause often and ask if you've been understood
 * Speak slowly when giving a phone number, address, or some other number
 * Use simple sentences, especially when writing. ("Click OK," instead of "Select the OK button and press.")
 * Use widely accepted international business terms such as "invoice"
 * Use common English words found in small, simple dictionaries. ("Please read the specification" instead of "Peruse the specification.")
 * Choose a single, common verb that explains the action of a sentence. ("Analyze the profit margins in the ACME report," for example, would be better than "Give me your take on the margins.")
 * Avoid two word verbs ending with OFF, UP, or ON. ("She quit," instead of "She gave up.")
 * Be careful with using the verbs "get,” “look,” “take,” or "put" because those verbs have many varied meanings
 * Avoid verbs used colloquially. (“Deliver the work order to Bob in manufacturing.” instead of “Hoof it to Bob.”)
 * Avoid every day jargon and local expressions
 * Avoid idioms, idiomatic phrases, or any metaphors. (“He was robbed,” instead of “He was taken to the cleaners.”)
 * Avoid words from other languages adopted by the English language. (Use “appetizers” instead of “hors d’oeuvres.”)
 * Avoid humor based on knowledge of the language
 * Assume and accept that your listener does not understand everything you've said

1.6.4 Differences in Content, Organization, Style and Design
When editing for international audiences, keep in mind that different cultures have different expectations for communication and documentation. Conducting proper audience analysis will help guide these decisions. The following sections discuss content, organization, style, and design parameters relevant to global audiences.

§ Focus on long-term benefits, not short-term gains § Tendency in business to trust relationships above all, leads them to look for facts in documents and dislike overt attempts to persuade || § Common for family-related issues to be mentioned in public relations, advertising, and documentations § Business relationships and meetings often start with exchanges about families and personal interests || § Interpersonal relationships and prior experiences can sometimes even trump empirical evidence § Contextual cues can be more important than content (i.e., how someone says something may be more important that what he says) ||
 * TABLE 1.1** Content (Johnson-Sheehan p 56)
 * Country || Expectations of Content ||
 * China || § Fact based
 * Mexico, South America, and many African countries || § Family and personal backgrounds are of great importance
 * Middle East || § Arabs often put a premium on negotiations and bargaining, especially when it comes to the price of a service or product. As a result, it is crucial that all the details in documents are spelled out exactly before the two sides try to work out a deal ||
 * Asian countries || § Reputation of writer or company is essential for establishing the credibility of the information
 * India || § Business is often conducted in English because the nation has over a dozen major languages and hundreds of minor languages ||
 * African countries such as Tunisia and Morocco || § Business tends to be conducted in French, even though the official language of the country is Arabic ||

§ American tendency to “get to the point” is often considered rude § Documents rely on repetition to make their points. To North Americans, this repetition might seem like the document is moving one step back for every two steps forward. To Arabs, American documents often seem incomplete because they lack this repetition || § To some Asians, American documents seem abrupt, because Americans tend to bluntly highlight goals and objectives up front ||
 * TABLE 1.2** Organization (Johnson-Sheehan p 57)
 * Country || Expectations of Organization ||
 * Arab countries || § Documents and meetings often start with statements of appreciation and attempts to build common bonds among people
 * Asian countries || § Often prefer to start out with contextual information about non-business issues. For example, it is common for Japanese writers to start out letters by saying something about the weather
 * India || § The term //thank you// is considered a form of payment. So, if someone has done you a favor, you should not say thank you in the introduction or conclusion of an e-mail or letter. Saying //thank you// suggests you are paying that person for the favor ||

§ Documents and meetings should be used to build relationships and present factual information § Strong relationships lead to good business, not the other way around || § American reliance on “plain language” can rub against the sensibilities of Arabs, who prefer a more ornate style in formal documents || § Mexicans especially value formality in business settings, so the use of first names and contractions in business prose can be offensive || § Women as speakers and writers should not be too surprised when people of other cultures resist their directness ||
 * TABLE 1.3** Style (Johnson-Sheehan p 57-58)
 * Country || Expectations of style ||
 * China || § Overt attempts at persuasion are often seen as rude and undesirable
 * Arab countries || § Arabic style may seem overly ornamental to North American tastes, making Arabic documents and presentations seem colorful to non-Arabs
 * Mexico and much of South America || § Informal style often suggests a lack of respect for the project, the product, or the readers
 * Sub-Saharan Africa || § Readers prefer a documents’ tone to stress a win-win situation. Your tone should imply that both sides will benefit from the arrangement ||
 * Native Americans || § Some prefer the sense that everyone had input on the document. Therefore, a direct writing style or presentation will meet resistance if it is deemed to represent just one person ||
 * North America || § Women are more direct than women in other parts of the world, including Europe. This directness often works to their advantage in other countries, because they are viewed as confident and forward thinking

§ Scan pages differently than Americans and Europeans || § In some Asian cultures, the white flower or white dress can symbolize death. A photograph of white flowers or white clothing can signal a funeral or mourning || § Americans often find the small margins in European texts make the documents look crowded and cramped || § Graphs and charts that seem to have obvious meanings in your culture may be confusing to readers from other cultures. Seek someone from the reader’s culture to confirm whether the visuals will be understood ||
 * TABLE 1.4** Style (Johnson-Sheehan p 59)
 * Country || Expectations of Design ||
 * Arabic and some Chinese countries || § Read from right to left
 * South American and Asian cultures || § Use of the right hand is preferred when handing items (e.g., business cards, documents, products). Therefore, pictures of drawings in documents should show people using their right hand to interact
 * Europeans || § Find that American texts include too many graphics and use too much white space
 * Native American cultures || § In face-to-face interaction, hand gestures should be limited and eye contact should be minimized. ||
 * General || § Be careful of icons that show hand gestures (e.g., OK sign, pointing finger, or a peace sign with the back of the hand facing outward. These can be highly offensive in some cultures

//For more information//, refer to Rude pp. 347-366 and Johnson-Sheehan pp. 51-59.


 * 1.6.4.1 Cultural Differences in Communication**

Iris Varner and Linda Beamer, authors of //Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace// (2004), identified examples of how cultural differences affect communication. For instance, Westerners tend to approach their business correspondences in a direct manner, whereas Asian cultures may comment on the weather and send greetings to the recipient’s family. According to Rude, “Miscommunication occurs when the Eastern reader is offended by the apparent indifference of the Western writer…or when the Western reader is frustrated by the apparent vagueness of the Eastern writer” (348).

The technical editor should keep these subtle cultural expectations in mind when writing for an international audience.

1.6.5 Contrastive Rhetoric

 * Introduction**

Contrastive rhetoric–the study of the impact of a person’s first language and culture on the way he or she writes in a second language–offers deeper insight into globalism in the business and communications workplace. Robert Kaplan pioneered the study in his 1966 article that appeared in the journal //Language Learning//, "Cultural Thought Patterns and Inter-Cultural Education," in which he analyzed the stylistic differences in compositions by 600 ESL students. The field is increasingly important in a burgeoning global economy, and literature and research on the topic has grown even more robust since the 1990s.

1.6.6 Translation Technology

 * 1.6.6.1 Introduction**

A sub-specialty of technical communications involves translation and translation technology. A number of translation services specialize in specific industries such as technology, medical, government, engineering, automotive, defense, and more. Each of these agencies utilizes different hardware, software, and project management systems along with native speakers. A far-from-comprehensive list of leading U.S.-based agencies providing services to technical communications projects includes [|Lionbridge Technologies], [|Merrill Brink International], [|RIC International], and [|ASTA-USA].


 * 1.6.6.2 Quality Translation**

In a paper for //STC Proceedings//, Elisabeth Poiré offers indicators of a quality translation that project managers should keep in mind:
 * Accuracy. The document should accurately describe the product’s features and functionality.
 * Native fluency. The document should not read like "a translation." Word choice, punctuation, and grammar should all be edited with the same seriousness as the source document.
 * Term consistency. The document should use consistent and accurate terminology throughout.
 * Formatting congruence. The document should follow the formatting of the source document and/or comply with the style guide.
 * Completeness. All parts of the document should be translated, including screen shots and illustration call-outs.


 * 1.6.6.3 Web Translation Systems**

The new kid on the translation technology block is [|Google Translate], which is built on Google’s own machine translation (MT) platform. But this and other free online programs, such as Babel Fish and Microsoft Bing Translator, are limited to probable equivalent phrases without taking context or style into account, and technical communicators should use them with discretion.

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