Formatting+and+Visual+Design

Chapter 23: Formatting and Visual Design 23.1 Introduction 23.1.1 Overview of Formatting and Visual Design 23.1.2 Contents of this Chapter 23.1.3 Editor's Responsibilities 23.1.4 Style Guide 23.2 Manuscripts 23.2.1 Overview 23.2.2 Elements of a Manuscript 23.2.3 Front Matter 23.2.4 Body 23.2.5 Back Matter 23.3 Dissertations, Theses, Term Papers, Research Reports, and Other Student Work 23.3.1 Overview 23.3.2 Division of Text 23.3.3 Page Numbers 23.3.4 Margins 23.4 Business Proposals 23.4.1 Short Proposals 23.4.2 Long Proposals 23.4.3 Style 23.5 Manuals 23.6 Business Letters 23.7 Memos
 * 23.2.1.1. Paper **
 * 23.2.1.2 Page Orientation **
 * 23.2.1.3 Margins **
 * 23.2.1.4 Text Formatting **
 * 23.2.1.5 Justification **
 * 23.2.1.6 Hyphenation **
 * 23.2.1.7 Line Spacing **
 * 23.2.1.8 Line Length **
 * 23.2.1.9 Paragraphs **
 * 23.2.1.10 Block Quotes **
 * 23.2.1.11 Tables and Illustrations **
 * 23.2.3.1 Page Numbers for Front Matter **
 * 23.2.3.2 Running Heads for Front Matter **
 * 23.2.3.3 Half-Title Page **
 * 23.2.3.4 Series Title or Frontispiece **
 * 23.2.3.5 Title Page **
 * 23.2.3.6 Copyright Page **
 * 23.2.3.7 Dedication **
 * 23.2.3.8 Epigraph **
 * 23.2.3.9 Table of Contents **
 * 23.2.3.10 List of Illustrations **
 * 23.2.3.11 List of Tables **
 * 23.2.3.12 Foreword **
 * 23.2.3.13 Preface **
 * 23.2.3.14 Acknowledgements **
 * 23.2.3.15 Introduction **
 * 23.2.3.16 List of Abbreviations **
 * 23.2.3.17 Chronology **
 * 23.2.4.1 Page Numbers for Body **
 * 23.2.4.2 Running Heads for Body **
 * 23.2.4.3 Half-Titles **
 * 23.2.4.4 Abstract **
 * 23.2.4.5 Chapters and Parts **
 * 23.2.4.6 Blank Pages **
 * 23.2.4.7 Headings **
 * 23.2.4.8 Epilogues, Afterwords, and Conclusions **
 * 23.2.5.1 Page Numbers of Back Matter **
 * 23.2.5.2 Running Heads for Back Matter **
 * 23.2.5.3 Acknowledgements **
 * 23.2.5.4 Appendix **
 * 23.2.5.5 Chronology **
 * 23.2.5.6 Notes **
 * 23.2.5.7 Glossary **
 * 23.2.5.8 Bibliography **
 * 23.2.5.9 List of Contributors **
 * 23.2.5.10 Index **
 * 23.4.1.1 Introduction **
 * 23.4.1.2 Body **
 * 23.4.2.3 Conclusion **
 * 23.4.2.1 Elements **
 * 23.4.2.2 Cover or Transmittal Letter **
 * 23.4.2.3 Title Page **
 * 23.4.2.4 Table of Contents **
 * 23.4.2.5 List of Figures **
 * 23.4.2.6 Executive Summary **
 * 23.4.2.7 Introduction **
 * 23.4.2.8 Background or Problem **
 * 23.4.2.9 Product Description **
 * 23.4.2.10 Detailed Solutions **
 * 23.4.2.11 Cost Analysis **
 * 23.4.2.12 Delivery Schedule **
 * 23.4.2.13 Staffing **
 * 23.4.2.14 Site Preparation **
 * 23.4.2.15 Training Requirements **
 * 23.4.2.16 Statement of Responsibility **
 * 23.4.2.17 Organizational Sales Pitch **
 * 23.4.2.18 Authorization Request and Deadline **
 * 23.4.2.19 Conclusion **
 * 23.4.2.20 Appendixes **
 * 23.4.2.21 Bibliography **
 * 23.4.2.22 Glossary **
 * 23.5.1 Types of Manuals **
 * 23.5.1.1 User Manuals **
 * 23.5.1.2 Tutorials **
 * 23.5.1.3 Training Manuals **
 * 23.5.1.4 Operators’ Manuals **
 * 23.5.1.5 Service Manuals **
 * 23.5.1.6 Policy Manuals **
 * 23.5.1.7 Procedural Manuals **
 * 23.5.2 Elements of Manuals **
 * 23.5.2.1 Overview **
 * 23.5.2.2 Major Sections **
 * 23.5.2.3 Goals of Actions **
 * 23.5.3 Style Considerations **
 * 23.5.3.1 Page Size and Orientation **
 * 23.5.3.2 Typeface and Type Style **
 * 23.5.3.3 Text Placement, Margins, and White Space **
 * 23.5.3.4 Justification **
 * 23.5.3.5 Hyphenation **
 * 23.5.3.6 Line Spacing **
 * 23.5.3.6 Line Length **
 * 23.5.3.7 Paragraphs **
 * 23.5.3.8 Tables and Illustrations **
 * 23.6.1 Format and Design**
 * 23.6.1.1 Margins and Placement of Text **
 * 23.6.1.2 Page Size and Orientation **
 * 23.6.1.3 Typeface and Type Style **
 * 23.6.1.4 Justification **
 * 23.6.2 Elements of a Business Letter **
 * 23.6.2.1 Heading **
 * 23.6.2.2 Inside Address **
 * 23.6.2.3 Salutation **
 * 23.6.2.4 Body **
 * 23.6.2.5 Complimentary Closing **
 * 23.6.2.6 End notation **
 * 23.7.1 Format and Design **
 * 23.7.1.1 Margins and Placement of Text **
 * 23.7.1.2 Page Size and Orientation **
 * 23.7.1.3 Typeface and Type Style **
 * 23.7.1.4 Justification **
 * 23.7.2 Elements of a Memo **
 * 23.7.2.1 Heading **
 * 23.7.2.2 Body **
 * 23.7.2.3 End notation **

23.1 Introduction

23.1.1 Overview of Formatting and Visual Design

Formatting, or layout, and visual design (referred to as //formatting// going forward) are key components of ensuring that documents are legible, understandable, and relevant. Formatting helps to organize the information. It aids in the user's comprehension of the document by providing visual cues as to the purpose of the document. For instance, the user should be able to tell fairly quickly by looking at a document whether it is a procedure manual, a letter, a memo, a user guide, or a proposal. Structural signals such as a table of contents and what information appears at the beginning of the text tell the user what to generally expect from the document.

Formatting also aids in the document's usability by providing information in predictable places and making it easy (if formatting is done correctly) to find what the user wants. Note that most users do not read entire technical and professional documents; they will search for the content they are interested in or need and leave the remainder untouched. Visual signals such as bold or italics for emphasis, numbering of steps, paragraph indentation, and headings and subheading direct the user to what is important and where certain pieces of information begin and end.

Finally, formatting impacts the user's motivation to read or use the document. The design of the document helps to create the user’s first impression of the document. The design either invites or discourages reading. For instance, text-heavy instructions in a user's guide will likely discourage use while a document with a certain amount of white space on the page will motivate the user to read it. Inconsistent formatting in a published academic article will similarly discourage typical users from pursuing the content further because it looks unprofessional. When care is taken to ensure that the document is consistently and appropriately formatted, the user will have more confidence that the same care was taken with the content.

23.1.2 Contents of this Chapter

This guide introduces you to some of the key elements of formatting and formatting standards for typical documents created and edited by NJIT faculty and students. It includes standards and guidelines for the following documents: manuscripts, student works, proposals, technical manuals, policies and procedures, business letters, and memos. Where they exist, commonly accepted university or association standards are included. Where these standards do not exist, recommendations from texts used in the NJIT MSPTC program and other reliable sources are used.

23.1.3 Editor's Responsibilities While there are many approaches to formatting documents, all approaches should have one element in common: consistency. It is consistency that helps the user determine what information belongs together, what is important and what is merely helpful or interesting, and even how to maneuver through a document. It is up to the editor to ensure that formatting is consistent throughout the document and with the standards established, when available.

When standards are not available, an editor may need to create conventions that identify rules such as placement of elements and text, size of text, text style, font type, margins, and justification of document titles, section headings, and subheadings. The list of conventions to be used with a document is called a //style guide//.

Lack of consistency can create unnecessary noise on the page, distracting the user from the content and message. Even a single space difference for indentation of paragraphs from one paragraph to the next is enough to distract some users. In addition, too much formatting, that is, too much variety in styles, can be distracting for the user. For instance, using too many typefaces and type styles can make it difficult to discern what each change means. The user has too many elements to keep track of and may be over-stimulated visually by the variety. It also makes the document appear more like a graphic design than a document because the document is over-emphasizing the visual aspect.

23.1.4 Style Guide As Carolyn Rude points out in her book //Technical Editing//, "A good editor at least imagines the document as readers are interacting with it to anticipate the likely uses and needs of readers. Even better, the writer or editor consults with the user to learn about needs and hopes for the document” (23). When creating a style guide, the editor must consider the user. What will make the document easy to read and use? What is the user expecting in the document? What will help keep the user focused on the content and help the user avoid distractions by other elements on the page?

The editor may use already established style guides or create something from scratch. It should consider everything from the page size and media for distribution (e.g., paper, website, creatively cut hand-outs) to the type style and size to be used for various elements. As noted above in 23.1.3, the editor must be wary of over-formatting the document which may cause distractions. Simple is typically better.

23.2 Manuscripts

23.2.1 Overview The formatting requirements for manuscript submissions for books, articles, and other scholarly material for professional publication varies according to the conventions of the publisher. The following material was extracted from the //MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing//, //The Chicago Manual of Style//, and //Technical// //Editing// by Carolyn D. Rude and provides a general guide when conventions are not provided or as a starting point if a publisher has not been identified. Most publishers do not vary much from these standards.

Where applicable, differences between the MLA and Chicago standards are noted.

23.2.1.1. Paper

Content should be formatted for 8 ½ by 11 sized paper (or the closest in size). When printing, print only on one side of good quality paper.

23.2.1.2 Page Orientation

The content should be oriented for “portrait” (taller than wide) view. If using “landscape” (wider than tall) orientation, use multiple columns or wide margins so lines are not too long to read easily.

23.2.1.3 Margins

Except for running heads (including last name and page number), margins are one inch from the top and bottom and on the left and right. If the paper is larger than 8 ½ by 11, the print area should be no more than 6 ½ by 9 inches.

23.2.1.4 Text Formatting

Use standard, readable text. Refer to the section on typography for more detail. Italics are clear to distinguish from regular type style. Bold type is more legible than capitalization or underlining. In order to distinguish variations in type size, the difference must be more than four points. Variation invites attention but too much creates distraction. Underlining creates emphasis but reduces legibility.

23.2.1.5 Justification

Justification should be to the left margin. This is suggested due to left-right reading in Western cultures; it allows the eye to return to left margin for left-to-right reading. Centering and right justification should be used sparingly for headings. Do not right justify the text.

23.2.1.6 Hyphenation

Do not hyphenate words that do not normally have hyphens to carry over to next line.

23.2.1.7 Line Spacing

Double space all content including the title, table of contents, quotations, notes, and list of works cited. Do not single space any content intended for editing.

23.2.1.8 Line Length

Lines that are too long or short slow reading. The maximum length should be no more than two and one half alphabets or two times the point size. That translates to 65 characters per line across the page regardless of size.

23.2.1.9 Paragraphs

Indent first word of paragraph one-half inch from left margin. Shorter paragraphs are quicker to read and are suitable for instructional documentation; however, longer paragraphs allow for more development of ideas and are suitable for academic and scientific documentation.

23.2.1.10 Block Quotes

Fully indent long quotes (block quote) by one inch from the left margin.

23.2.1.11 Tables and Illustrations

Each table is labeled //Table// and given an Arabic numeral and caption. Tables are numbered sequentially throughout the document or within a chapter or other division. Both the label and caption are flush left on separate lines above the table. Capitalize the label like a title. Include the source of the table and any notes immediately below the table. Designate notes to the table with superscript lowercase letters rather than numerals. Insert a dividing line if needed between the table and text and double-space the text.

For other illustrative material, label as the item as a //Figure//, assign an Arabic numeral, and insert a short title or caption directly below the illustration. Musical illustrations are labeled //Example//, assigned an Arabic numeral, and given a caption.

If numbering is contained in the chapter or other division, use “double numeration” with the chapter or division number followed by the table or figure number. For example, for the first table in chapter 1, the label is “Table 1.1.” Use an appropriate title. The table or illustration should appear as soon as possible after it is referred to in text. The table or illustration should face in same direction as the text in a portrait orientation unless it is too wide. All tables or illustrations placed in a landscape orientation must face the same way. On verso pages, the bottom of the table or illustration should be at the gutter (binding). On the recto page, the top of the table or illustration should be at the gutter (by binding).

23.2.2 Elements of a Manuscript The elements of a manuscript are divided into three sections: front matter, text, and back matter. The following list is based on the elements of a manuscript for a book. Journal articles and other scholarly documents will not contain as many elements. But the same standards apply for those elements that are included. Therefore, the final product is referred to as “document” instead of “book” to indicate that much of this material is transferrable to various publications. The elements appear in the document in the order provided.

Front matter:

Book half title (mentioned only in Chicago) Series title or frontispiece (mentioned only in Chicago) Title page Copyright page Dedication Epigraph Contents/table of contents Illustrations/list of illustrations Tables/list of tables Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Introduction Abbreviations (mentioned only in Chicago)

Text

Back Matter:

Acknowledgements (mentioned only in Chicago) Appendix Chronology (mentioned only in Chicago) Notes Glossary Bibliography or references (location according to Chicago) Contributors/list of contributors Works cited (location according to MLA) Index

23.2.3 Front Matter

23.2.3.1 Page Numbers for Front Matter

The front matter or preliminary pages are numbered using lower case roman numerals starting with the first page after the cover. Blank pages on the backs of printed pages when printing on both sides – the left-hand or //verso// side of the paper – are counted even if they are not numbered. Display pages, such as the title, half-title, copyright, dedication, and epigraph pages, do not have a page number displayed. Page numbers are typically at the top of the page, flush right on the recto page and flush left on the verso page.

23.2.3.2 Running Heads for Front Matter

Running heads, the headings at the top of the pages, are never used on display pages (half title, title, copyright, dedication, and epigraph) or the first page of the table of contents, preface, or any other element of the front matter. If the text includes a running head, elements of the front matter that cover more than one page must also have a running head. The running head is the same on the recto and verso pages.

23.2.3.3 Half-Title Page

The half-title page appears on the //recto// or right-hand side when printing on both sides of the page. It displays the short title or main title of the document without the subtitle. It appears immediately inside the cover with type generally smaller than it appears on the title page. The verso page is usually blank but may contain an illustration (frontispiece) or the series title page. Occasionally, the half-title page spans two pages in which case it starts on the verso side of one page (with the recto side blank) and extends to the recto side of the next page.

23.2.3.4 Series Title or Frontispiece

The series title or frontispiece page is typically the verso side of the half-title page.

If the document is part of a series, the title of the series, the volume number in the series, and the name of the general editor of the series appear on this page. Sometimes the publisher will list the titles of documents in the series that have been already published.

If the document recounts the proceedings of a symposium, this page identifies the title of the symposium, the name of the city where it was held, the date when it was held, the committee that planned the symposium, and, in some cases, the sponsor of the symposium.

This page might list documents published by the author

Or, this page may include an illustration called a frontispiece.

23.2.3.5 Title Page

The title page appears on the recto page. It includes the title and any subtitle, the name of the author, editor, or translator, and the name, location, and, if desired by the publisher, logo of the publisher.

If the type size or style of the subtitle differs from that of the main title, a colon or other punctuation is not required between the two.

If the work is a new edition of something previously published, the number (in words instead of numerals) should appear on this page after the title.

When printing the author’s name, use his full name without initials unless that is how he is generally known (e.g., P. D. James). Do not include academic credentials except MD.

Volume editors are identified with the verbiage “Edited by” followed by their names. Translators are identified with the verbiage “Translated by” followed by their names.

For reports, the title page usually contains more information and may be the same page as the cover page.

23.2.3.6 Copyright Page

The copyright page generally falls on the verso side of the title page and includes the copyright symbol, year of publication, and copyright holder. The following is an example:

© 2010, Ten Speed Press All rights reserved

There are no periods at end of the lines.

The page may also include a brief biographical note on the author, editor, or translator, list previous publications, and note academic affiliations. This information appears above the copyright notice. The publisher’s address (often abbreviated and sometimes including addresses of overseas agents) may also appear on the copyright page above the copyright notice.

The copyright page includes ISBN (International Standard Book Number) for commercial publishers. (This number identifies the country of publication and the publisher.)

Acknowledgement of grants of financial assistance toward publication of the document should appear on the copyright page unless they require more space or prominence.

Catalog-in-Publication (CIP) data, providing the Library of Congress CIP information for the document, must either appear on this page or refer to the placement elsewhere in the document.

If space permits, this page may include acknowledgements of previously published parts of the document, illustration credits, and permission to quote from copyrighted material.

23.2.3.7 Dedication

The dedication is optional. If one is provided, it should appear on its own page on the recto side. Dedications should be brief.

23.2.3.8 Epigraph

An epigraph – a quotation that is relevant to the text but not necessary to the understanding of the content – is optional. While often used as chapter openings, they also appear in the front matter either on the verso side of a dedication, if one is provided, or on the recto page preceding the table of contents.

23.2.3.9 Table of Contents

The table of contents lists the main divisions of the document and the number of the first page for each division. It appears on the recto page. The table includes this all information that follows the table of contents, including front matter, but nothing that precedes it. If chapters are divided into parts, the headings are typically included. Subheadings are generally omitted unless they have a particularly strong value for the user.

23.2.3.10 List of Illustrations

6The list of illustrations is optional and is typically not used when there are very few illustrations or there are many illustrations that are tied closely to the text. The list includes the label of the illustration (a number and caption or title) and the page on which the illustration appears. The caption or title may be shortened.

The list of tables is optional and is typically used when there tables that are frequently referenced throughout the text. The list includes the label of the table (a number and caption or title) and the page on which the table appears. The caption or title may be shortened.
 * 23.2.3.11 List of Tables **

23.2.3.12 Foreword

The foreword is an introduction written and signed by someone other than the author or editor. It is more common in academic and literary material than technical documents. The foreword appears on the recto page. The type is the same style and size as the text of the document. The author’s name appears at the end, flush to the right margin, with a line space (or less) between it and the text of the foreword. Often the title and affiliation of the author of the foreword appears in smaller type below her name.

23.2.3.13 Preface

The preface is an introduction to written by the author or editor. It typically covers the purpose of the document, the scope of discussion, the significance if the information provided, and, at times, a history of the issue or concern at hand. The preface often includes acknowledgements. The preface appears on the recto page. The type is the same style and size as the text of the document. The author’s name or the place and date of the preface may appear at the end, flush to the left margin, with a line space (or less) between it and the text of the foreword.

23.2.3.14 Acknowledgements

The acknowledgements are usually part of the preface but may appear on their own if they are lengthy. They include the names people who helped with the publication, particularly those who reviewed drafts and provided information. The acknowledgements appear on the recto page.

23.2.3.15 Introduction

An introduction is written by someone other than the author and is longer than a foreword. (If the introduction is only three to five pages, it should be a foreword appearing before the preface.) The introduction appears on the recto page.

23.2.3.16 List of Abbreviations

A list of abbreviations used in the document may be included when there are many abbreviations or there are abbreviations used frequently in the text. If the abbreviations are used in the text, the list should appear in the front matter. If the abbreviations are only in the back matter, the list should appear before the first element in which the abbreviations appear. The list of abbreviations may start on either the rector or verso page.

23.2.3.17 Chronology

A chronological list of events may be listed separately in the either the front matter or the back matter. It starts on the recto page.

23.2.4 Body

23.2.4.1 Page Numbers for Body

The body of the document pages is numbered using roman numerals starting with the first page of the text or the half-title page as number one. Blank pages on the backs of printed pages when printing on both sides – verso side of the paper – are counted even if they are not numbered. Display pages, such as the half-title, and the first page of each chapter do not have a page number displayed. Page numbers are typically at the top of the page, flush right on the recto page and flush left on the verso page.

23.2.4.2 Running Heads for Body

Running heads, the headings at the top of the pages, do not appear on the first page of any chapter or on any display page such as the half-title page. The format may vary with either the same information appearing on both the recto and verso pages or different information appearing on the recto or verso pages.

23.2.4.3 Half-Titles

Half-titles are sometimes used to group related chapters. They are placed between major parts of the document. Half-titles appear on the recto page and contain the part title.

23.2.4.4 Abstract

The abstract summarizes or describes the content of a chapter or a subdivision at beginning of the content. For an article or other shorter publication, the abstract precedes the article. It is a standard part of academic publications including research reports. The abstract is paragraph length and in the same type style and size as the rest of the text.

23.2.4.5 Chapters and Parts

Chapters create divisions in the content based on common information, thought, purpose, or some other basis. The chapters are sometimes further divided into unified sections. Some documents are divided into parts, each with related chapters grouped together.

Chapters and parts are numbered consecutively and normally given titles. There must be at least two chapters, parts, or sections in order to have Chapters or parts are usually labeled with a number and title. They are numbered consecutively; the numbers do not start over with each part when chapters are grouped together. Chapters and parts start on recto pages. The first page of a chapter should not have a running head.

One inch from top of page, flush left, type “Chapter” followed by the chapter number. On the next line (double-spaced) type the title of the chapter. The text starts on the next line (double-spaced). Do not add a period at end of title or any heading.

23.2.4.6 Blank Pages

A blank page may be inserted when there is no print from a chapter or division appearing on the verso page when all chapters or divisions begin on a recto page.

23.2.4.7 Headings

Headings and subheadings identify key points and serve as transitions in the text. They show the overall structure of the document and identify specific sections for selective reading. Heading should follow parallel structure. Headings or subheadings are not numbered if there are no subsequent, equivalent divisions. It is important to be consistent in the application of headings and subheadings.

Leave two lines after a heading on a page. Do not leave a heading at bottom of page. One heading implies at least one more at the same level.

Heading levels identify the main and subordinate parts. When there is more than one level of headings, the headings are labeled A level, B level, C level, and so on. Most works need no more than three levels. Subsections are usually not numbered except in scientific and technical documents. The numbers start with the chapter number which is followed by a period. The next number is the subsection number. Subsections of the same level are numbered sequentially. If there is a lower level, the next level is numbered with the chapter number, a period, the higher subsection level, another period, and then the lower subsections under the higher level numbered sequentially. For instance, for the third subsection at the B level in Chapter 10 under A level numbered 4, the number is 10.4.3. The numbers gain length as there are more subsection levels.

Except for the lowest level, headings and subheadings appear on separate lines. Levels are differentiated by type style and placement. The lowest level runs into the paragraph and is typically set in italics and followed by a period. Headings and sub-headings use title style capitalization with the first letter of the first work capitalized and the first letter of each subsequent word (except most articles, prepositions, and conjunctions) capitalized. Headings are never in all capital letters.

23.2.4.8 Epilogues, Afterwords, and Conclusions

Epilogues and afterwords are relatively brief sections that may end the text. They do not have chapter numbers. Conclusions are typically more substantial and may have a chapter number. Epilogues, afterwords, and conclusions may begin on either the recto or verso page.

23.2.5 Back Matter

23.2.5.1 Page Numbers of Back Matter

The back matter or supplementary pages are numbered sequentially using Arabic numerals continued from the body of the document. The first page of each element in the back matter does not have a page number displayed. Page numbers are typically at the top of the page, flush right on the recto page and flush left on the verso page.

23.2.5.2 Running Heads for Back Matter

Running heads, the headings at the top of the pages, do not appear on the first page of any element in the back matter. The format may vary with either the same information appearing on both the recto and verso pages or different information appearing on the recto or verso pages. For an appendix, “Appendix” appears on the verso page and the appendix title appears on the recto page.

23.2.5.3 Acknowledgements

Refer to 23.2.3.14 above.

23.2.5.4 Appendix

An appendix provides supplementary text material such as tables, sample documents, and troubleshooting guides. Each is labeled as “Appendix” with a letter or number and title (e.g., Appendix A: Statistical Tables). The typeface may be either the same size as the text in the body of the document or in a smaller type. The first appendix starts on the recto page. Subsequent appendixes may start on either the recto or verso page.

23.2.5.5 Chronology

Refer to 23.2.2.16 above.

23.2.5.6 Notes

Notes or endnotes are introduced by a subhead indicating the chapter number. Running heads to the endnotes identify the text pages that the notes apply to. They are set in smaller type size than the text but in larger text size than footnotes. Notes start on a recto page.

23.2.5.7 Glossary

The glossary is arranged in alphabetical order with each entry on a separate line. The glossary starts on a recto page.

23.2.5.8 Bibliography

The bibliography or list of references, also referred to as “works cited,” provides complete publication data for all materials cited in the document. This list may also appear at the end of each chapter. The bibliography begins on a recto page.

23.2.5.9 List of Contributors

When only the editor is given credit on the title page, a list of all contributors to a document is included in the back matter. The list begins on a recto page.

23.2.5.10 Inde

Indexes are normally set in two columns to a page and are in smaller type than the text. The index starts on a recto page. cussed or referred to.

23.3 Dissertations, Theses, Term Papers, Research Reports, and Other Student Work

23.3.1 Overview In general, the formatting of student work follows the guidelines above for manuscripts. Variations are noted below.

23.3.2 Division of Text For a dissertation and thesis, add to the title page the names of the faculty adviser and dissertation committee members supporting the student, a statement indicating that the work has been submitted in partial fulfillment of degree requirements, and the date (month and year) in which the work is submitted or degree is conferred. An approval page with the names and signatures of all members of the thesis or dissertation committee might be required.

An abstract page (sometimes preceded by an abstract title page) must be included. The content reproduces the summary submitted to Dissertation Abstracts International.

The document might also include a biography page with a short biography. It is either part of front matter or back matter.

23.3.3 Page Numbers

Page numbers appear flush right one-half inch from the top edge of the paper in a running header. The student’s last name precedes the page number with no space or hyphen separating them. The approval page, abstract page, and biography page are neither numbered nor counted. Page numbers are normally separated from the text by three lines or one-half inch.

23.3.4 Margins The left side margin should be one and one-half inches from left side of paper to allow for binding if the document is to be printed and bound. The remaining margins are one inch or slightly more.

23.4 Business Proposals The format of a business proposal may depend on the standards for the organization receiving the proposal. Organization, style, and so forth may be established by an organization that receives many proposals. The consistency makes it easier for their associates who review the proposals to access information and compare proposals from different applicants.

The following sections provide general information on proposal organization and content and suggestions for style.

23.4.1 Short Proposals Short proposals consist of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

23.4.1.1 Introduction

The introduction states the purpose and scope of the proposal, the problem to be resolved, and the solution to the problem. Include the date work will begin and be completed, benefits to the approach advanced in the proposal, and the cost of the project.

23.4.1.2 Body

The body offers the details of the solution to the problem and explains the following:

• Product or service offered • How the job will be done • How the work will be performed and any special materials to be used • Schedule of each phase of the project with completion dates • Breakdown of project costs

23.4.2.3 Conclusion

The conclusion should persuasively resell the proposal. Emphasize the benefits of the solution, product, or serve over competing ideas. Include details on when the proposal expires or is valid.

23.4.2 Long Proposals Long proposals are typically more formal than short proposals and consist of front matter, a body, and back matter.

23.4.2.1 Elements

The front matter consists of the following:

• Cover or Transmittal Letter • Title Page • Table of Contents • List of Figures

The body consists of the following:

• Executive Summary • Introduction • Background or Problem • Product Description • Detailed Solutions • Cost Analysis • Delivery Schedule • Staffing • Site Preparation • Training Requirements • Statement of Responsibility • Organizational Sales Pitch • Authorization Request and Deadline • Conclusion

The back matter consists of the following:

• Appendixes • Bibliography • Glossary

23.4.2.2 Cover or Transmittal Letter

The cover letter introduces the proposal, expresses appreciation for the opportunity to present the proposal, and offers assistance. Use the format suggestions provided in the business letter section below.

23.4.2.3 Title Page

On the title page, include the title of the proposal, the date, the name of the organization to which it is being submitted, and the name of the organization or individual submitting the proposal.

23.4.2.4 Table of Contents

The table of contents will guide the user to the sections he wants to review or revisit.

23.4.2.5 List of Figures

Include a list of figures if the proposal has more than six figures including table and illustrations.

23.4.2.6 Executive Summary

The executive summary briefly summarizes the proposal’s highlights in persuasive, nontechnical terms. It is targeted to decision-makers.

23.4.2.7 Introduction

The introduction explains the reasons for the proposal and emphasizes the benefits to the user. It may also include a summary of your understanding of the problem.

23.4.2.8 Background or Problem

This section provides a description of the problem or opportunity and how the proposal will benefit the user.

23.4.2.9 Product Description

This section provides a description of any products or services offered.

23.4.2.10 Detailed Solutions

This section explains the solution in detail.

23.4.2.11 Cost Analysis

The cost analysis itemizes the estimated costs of all products and services being offered.

23.4.2.12 Delivery Schedule

The delivery schedule offers the time line for commencing and completing the work proposed.

23.4.2.13 Staffing

Staffing summarizes the expertise of key personnel who will work on the project.

23.4.2.14 Site Preparation

The site preparation section is included if the work involves modifying the users physical facilities. The section includes details on the modification.

23.4.2.15 Training Requirements

This section details any training the user’s staff will need in order to utilize the solution proposed.

23.4.2.16 Statement of Responsibility

The statement of responsibility details the responsibilities of all parties involved in the project.

23.4.2.17 Organizational Sales Pitch

The organizational sales pitch describes the company submitting the proposal, its history, and its present position in the industry.

23.4.2.18 Authorization Request and Deadline

This section is a request for approval. It provides a deadline for the request during which time all prices and other offers are valid.

23.4.2.19 Conclusion

The conclusion provides a persuasive summary of the proposal’s key points and the company’s or individuals strengths.

23.4.2.20 Appendixes

The appendixes include resumes of key personnel, lists of specifications, and material of interest to the user.

23.4.2.21 Bibliography

The bibliography lists all sources consulted to prepare the proposal.

23.4.2.22 Glossary

If the proposal contains terms that will be unfamiliar to the indented audience, include a glossary that lists and defines those terms.

23.4.3 Style In general, follow the style suggestions in sections 23.2.1.1 through 23.2.1.11 except for the line spacing. Proposals are typically single spaced.

23.5 Manuals

23.5.1 Types of Manuals

There are many types of manuals that meet different user needs. They include user manuals, tutorials, training manuals, operators’ manuals, service manuals, policy manuals, and procedural manuals.

23.5.1.1 User Manuals

User manuals are created for skilled or unskilled users of certain equipment. The information includes setup, operations, maintenance, problem resolution, and safety precautions.

23.5.1.2 Tutorials

Tutorials provide users with the opportunity to learn how to use a product or system on their own without an instructor.

23.5.1.3 Training Manuals

Training manuals are used to train individuals to acquire, improve, or reinforce some skill, procedure, or area of knowledge. They may be used in conjunction with live training or electronic training. When a live trainer or support person is involved, there is also a comparable trainers’ manual with supporting notes, responses to any tests or quizzes, and other useful information.

23.5.1.4 Operators’ Manuals

Operators’ manuals are intended for skilled operators of equipment. They cover essential instructions and safety precautions.

23.5.1.5 Service Manuals

Service manuals are created for trained technicians who repair or maintain equipment or systems. These manuals contain information on the equipment or system, its components, and trouble-shooting and maintenance guides.

23.5.1.6 Policy Manuals

Policy manuals document an organization’s policies. Policy manuals cover a variety of issues from human resource concerns (e.g., standards of conduct, privacy, and payment for vacation time) to operational policies (e.g., employees must comply with certain state and federal laws, certain documents must be provided to a customer at a certain point in a transaction, all employees must log off of their computers before leaving their desk).

23.5.1.7 Procedural Manuals

Procedural manuals document the procedures required to complete a certain process or activity. They cover a wide range of activities that are not necessarily tied to certain equipment or systems; however, the use of equipment and systems may be addressed in the procedures. Procedural manuals are often combined with policy manuals to assist the user in the practical steps required to comply with a policy.

23.5.2 Elements of Manuals

Because manuals can cover so many different topics and purposes, the elements of each manual can vary significantly. However, all manuals should include an overview, major sections, and goals of action.

23.5.2.1 Overview

The overview explains the overall purpose of the documentation and how the documentation can be used by and be useful to the user. It also includes any cautions or warnings to the user.

23.5.2.2 Major Sections

The content should be divided into major sections, each addressing separate goals. Chapters, if used, can be divided into subsections.

23.5.2.3 Goals of Actions

Each section should include an explanation of why the user must follow each step or set of related steps or policy.

23.5.3 Style Considerations

The style guide for any particular manual will vary based on considerations such as the audience, the audience’s assumed education or skill level, where the user will use the manual (e.g., at her desk, at a construction site, near water or dirt), when the user will use the manual (e.g., before completing the activities required or needing the information, as he is completing the activities, on an occasional basis as a reference when she is in doubt), requirements of industry, state, or federal regulatory authorities, and the conventions established by the organization, if any. The following sections provide some considerations when creating a style guide.

23.5.3.1 Page Size and Orientation

The size and shape of the page is typically 8 ½ by 11 used in a portrait orientation. However, this standard might not be practical for all users and content. Operators’ and service manuals might need a larger field of print for complicated or large graphics. On the other hand, individuals working in the field in small spaces might benefit from a smaller format of a 4 by 6 index card making the manual more portable.

23.5.3.2 Typeface and Type Style

Use standard, readable text. Refer to the chapter on typography and section 23.2.1.4 above for more detail.

23.5.3.3 Text Placement, Margins, and White Space

Text can be oriented in different ways. The two most common are single column prose type formats formatting and tabular, two-column formatting. With the single column format, headings and subheadings interrupt the text between paragraphs. The benefit of this format is it saves space and looks formal. With tabular, two-column formatting, headings and subheadings appear in the first row and the left column of the table. The benefit of this format is that headings are easier to scan and there is more white space.

Margins should allow for sufficient white space, no less than one inch from each edge. Pages should provide a good balance of white space compared to text. White space makes the content easier to read and is less tiring for the user’s eyes.

23.5.3.4 Justification

Justification should be to the left margin. See the explanation in section 23.2.1.5 above.

23.5.3.5 Hyphenation

Do not hyphenate words that do not normally have hyphens to carry over to next line.

23.5.3.6 Line Spacing

All content should be single spaced.

23.5.3.6 Line Length

Refer to section 23.2.1.8 above.

23.5.3.7 Paragraphs

Paragraph indentation is a matter of preference in manuals. The key is to be consistent throughout the document.

23.5.3.8 Tables and Illustrations

Tables and other illustrations should be clearly labeled. Use, placement, sizing, formatting, and labeling of tables and illustrations should be consistent throughout the document. You may use the rules noted above under section 23.2.1.11 if other conventions are not provided.

23.6 Business Letters

23.6.1 Format and Design

Many organizations have their own style guidelines for business letters. Use the following information as a guide when creating or modifying a style guide.

23.6.1.1 Margins and Placement of Text

There are two common formats: full-block style and modified-block style. The full-block style is used only with letterhead. All parts of the letter are aligned to the left margin. With the modified-block style, the return address, date, and complimentary closing start at the center of the page. All other elements are aligned to the left margin.

Center the letter on the page vertically and horizontally to achieve a professional look. Margins are typically one inch on all edges; however, it is more important to create a blank frame around the text. Preprinted letterhead stationery may drive the width of the margins. The bottom of the letterhead should be treated as the edge of the paper. Left and right margins should align to the letterhead as appropriate for left and right flush letterheads. The right margin should be approximately as wide as the left margin.

With short letters, increase the margins to about one and one half inches to create a fuller appearance in the body.

23.6.1.2 Page Size and Orientation

The size and shape of the page is typically 8 ½ by 11 used in a portrait orientation.

23.6.1.3 Typeface and Type Style

Use standard, readable, professional looking text. Refer to the chapter on typography and section 23.2.1.4 above for more detail.

23.6.1.4 Justification

Justification should be to the left margin. See the explanation in section 23.2.1.5 above.

23.6.2 Elements of a Business Letter

Business letters contain the following elements:


 * Heading
 * Inside address
 * Salutation
 * Body
 * Complimentary closing
 * End notation

23.6.2.1 Heading

The sender’s full return address and the date of the lender appear in the heading. The sender’s name is not included. Words like “street”, “avenue”, and “road” are spelled out. State names are either spelled out or abbreviated using the standard postal service abbreviations.

The date appears directly below the last line of the return address with the month spelled out.

The heading starts at the center of the paper two inches from the top of the page.

If preprinted letterhead is used and it contains the return address, only add the date. It should be placed three lines below the last line of the printed copy of the letterhead. If the preprinted address is flush left, the date should be flush left.

23.6.2.2 Inside Address

The recipient’s full name, title, and address is included on the letter two to six lines below the date depending on the length of the letter. The inside address should be aligned with the left margin.

23.6.2.3 Salutation

Place the salutation or greeting two lines below the inside address and align it with the left margin. Unless the sender is on a first-name basis with the recipient, the salutation should contain the recipient’s personal title (e.g., Mr., Ms., Dr.) and last name. Professional titles tax precedence over Mr. or Ms. For women, use “Ms.” Unless the recipient specifies that she wants to be addressed as “Miss” or “Mrs.” If the recipient at a large company is unknown, address the appropriate department or identify the subject in a subject line and use no salutation. When a person’s name could be either feminine or masculine, consider using the recipient’s first and last name. Avoid using “to whom it may concern.”

23.6.2.4 Body

The body of the letter should begin two lines below the salutation (or the last element if there is no salutation). Single space within paragraphs. Double space between paragraphs. Paragraphs are typically not indented for business letters.

If the letter requires a second page, always carry at least two lines of the body of the text over to the second page. The second page appears on plain paper that does not have a preprinted letterhead. Add a header with the recipient’s name, the page number, and the date. This information can appear either in the left, top corner of the page or centered across the top of the page.

23.6.2.5 Complimentary Closing

The complimentary closing expression is placed lines below the body. Use standard expressions such as “Sincerely,” “Sincerely yours,” or “Yours truly.” Capitalize only the initial letter of the first word of the complimentary closing expression. Follow the closing with a comma. Insert the sender’s full name four lines below the complementary. The sender’s title is placed on the next line. The complimentary closing is aligned with the heading text.

23.6.2.6 End notation

Any end notes are flush to the left margin and start two lines below the typed name and title of the sender. (Two lines may be added if the letter is short.) If someone other than the sender prepares (types or keys) the letter, insert the sender’s initials in capital letters followed by a slash and then the “typist’s” initials in lower case letters.

If additional documents or material is included with the letter, insert an enclosure notation on its own line. The enclosure must be noted in the body of the letter. The notation starts with “Enclosure:”, “Enclosures”, “Enc.”, or “Encs.” These notations may be followed by a number representing the number of enclosures or a list of the enclosures.

A copy notation (cc:) alerts the recipient to the fact that other individuals received a copy of the letter. A blind copy (bcc:) notation appears on the copy of the person who received the blind copy but not on the copy provided to others in the “cc” list or the recipient.

23.7 Memos

23.7.1 Format and Design

As with business letters, many organizations have their own style guidelines for memos. Use the following information as a guide when creating or modifying a style guide.

23.7.1.1 Margins and Placement of Text

Typically, all parts of the memo are aligned to the left margin. Margins are usually one to one and one-half inches at all edges. Preprinted memo stock with a logo may drive the width of the margins. The bottom of the logo should be treated as the edge of the paper. Left and right margins should align to the logo as appropriate for left and right flush letterheads. The right margin should be approximately as wide as the left margin.


 * 23.7.1.2 Page Size and Orientation**

The size and shape of the page is typically 8 ½ by 11 used in a portrait orientation.

23.7.1.3 Typeface and Type Style

Use standard, readable, professional looking text. Refer to the chapter on typography and section 23.2.1.4 above for more detail.

23.7.1.4 Justification

Justification should be to the left margin. See the explanation in section 23.2.1.5 above.

23.7.2 Elements of a Memo

Business letters contain the following elements:


 * Heading
 * Body
 * End notation

23.7.2.1 Heading

The heading starts with an title that identifies the document as a memo or memorandum. The placement of this title varies but it is often centered across the page at least one inch from the top edge of the paper. The title is followed by two to four lines then the following on their own lines: “To,” From,” “Date,” and “Subject”. The date sometimes appears first. The subject nearly always appears last.

The date is always spelled out. The name of the recipient at “To” and the sender at “From” may also include the individuals’ titles. The first and all major words in the subject are capitalized.

23.7.2.2 Body

The body of the memo should begin two lines below the header. Single space within paragraphs. Double space between paragraphs. Paragraphs are typically not indented for memos.

If the memo requires a second page, always carry at least two lines of the body of the text over to the second page. The second page appears on plain paper that does not have a preprinted logo. Add a header with the recipient’s name, the page number, and the date. This information can appear either in the left, top corner of the page or centered across the top of the page.

23.7.2.3 End Notation

Endnotes follow the same guidelines as shown above in section 23.6.2.6.

Works Cited

Alred, Gerald J., Charles T. Brusaw, and Walter E.Oliu. //Handbook of Technical Writing//, 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006.

// The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publisher //, 15th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Horn, Robert E., “Structured Writing as a Paradigm,” //Development: State of the Art.// ED. Alexander Romiszowski and Charles Dills. Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology Publications, 1998.

// MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing //, 3rd ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2008.

Rude, Carolyn, //Technical Editing, Fourth Edition//, New York: Pearson Longman, 2006.